Chlorine in soils

Yuita K. 1992. Dynamics of iodine, bromine, and chlorine in soil. II. Chemical forms of iodine in soil solutions. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 38 281-287. 

X-ray absorption spectroscopy has revealed the formation of organochlorine compounds from chloride and chloroperoxidase in weathering plant material (172-174). Moreover, this technique has uncovered the bromide-to-organobromine conversion in environmental samples (174). In addition to chloroperoxidase mediated chlorination, the abiotic chlorination in soils and sediments involving the alkylation of halides during Fe(III) oxidation of natural organic phenols in soils and sediments has been discovered (175-177). 

Oberg GM (2003) The Biogeochemistry of Chlorine in Soil. In Gribble GW (ed) Natural Production of Organohalogen Compounds, The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, vol 3, part P. Springer, Berlin, p 43... 

Oberg G (1998) Chloride and Organic Chlorine in Soil. Acta Hydrochim Hydrobiolobiol 26 137... 

Oberg, G. 1998. Chloride and organic chlorine in soil. Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 26 137-144. 

Johnson, G. V., and Fixen, P. E. (1990). Testing soils for sulfur, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine. In Soil Testing and Plant Analysis, 3rd ed., ed. R. L. Westerman, pp. 265-73. Madison, WI Soil Science Society of America. 

The dkect high temperature chlorination of propylene continues to be the primary route for the commercial production of aHyl chloride. The reaction results in aHyl chloride selectivities of 75—80% from propylene and about 75% from chlorine. Additionally, a significant by-product of this reaction, 1,3-dichloropropene, finds commercial use as an effective nematocide when used in soil fumigation. Overall efficiency of propylene and chlorine use thus is significantly increased. Remaining by-products include 1,2-dichloropropane, 2-chloropropene, and 2-chloropropane. 

The relative immobility of the chlorodioxins is expected, based on the very low solubility of these compounds in water (0.6 / g/liter). In contrast, the herbicide, 2,4,5-T, is relatively mobile in sandy soils, but movement decreases as soil organic matter increases. What does this information tell us, and how does it compare with other organic compounds A mobility scale has been devised for a large number of pesticides (3). Higher mobility numbers reflect increased compound mobility in soils. The dioxins would be in Class 1—i.e., they are immobile in soils and would compare with several chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. 

Chlorine is used to make laundry bleach, such as Clorox, by dissolving chlorine in sodium hydroxide to give a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite slowly releases an active form of oxygen, which reacts with many forms of soil and dirt to destroy them by oxidation. Sodium hypochlorite also rapidly destroys bacteria, viruses, and molds. 

Propachlor, alachlor, acetochlor, and butachlor degrade readily and extensively in soil mainly through displacement of chlorine followed by further metabolism to numerous... 

Moderately inferior to corresponding chlorine analog in this particular test. c Paralyzing effect decreased, but toxicity remained unchanged. d Exposure time 68 hours under same conditions 16% were affected by DDT. e Systemic poison, applied in soil supporting plants. 

On the other hand, there is no evidence to support the assertion that polyethylene vapor berries deteriorate with exposure to soil chemicals. Construction film is a low-density polyethylene. High-density polyethylenes are used for the storage and transportation of an array of chemicals. Polyethylene is chemically stable, but may be adversely affected by aliphatic hydrocarbons (such as hexane, octane, and butane) and chlorinated solvents. It does not appear to be reactive with the acids and salts likely to be encountered in soil and concrete. 

Similar diagrams could be prepared for other phenolic compounds at a range of pH values. The results suggest that the same broad patterns of behavior apply as for PCP but the residence times are generally shorter because of reduced hydrophobicity and more rapid reactions. The lower chlorinated phenols are relatively short-lived and are not subject to appreciable intermedia transport, i.e., when discharged to a medium they tend to remain there until degraded or advected. The longest persistence occurs when the chemical is present in soils. 

Schiavon, M. 1988b. Studies of the movement and the formation of bound residues of atrazine, of 14 of its chlorinated derivatives, and of hydroxyatrazine in soil using 14C ring-labeled compounds under outdoor conditions. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 15 55-61. 

Requejo, A.G., R.H. West, P.G. Hatcher, and P.A. McGillivary. 1979. Polychlorinated biphenyls and chlorinated pesticides in soils of the Everglades National Park and adjacent agricultural areas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 13 931-935. 

The use of electrochemical methods for the destruction of aromatic organo-chlorine wastes has been reviewed [157]. Rusling, Zhang and associates [166, 167] have examined a stable, conductive, bicontinuous surfactant/soil/water microemulsion as a medium for the catalytic reduction of different pollutants. In soils contaminated with Arochlor 1260, 94% dechlorination was achieved by [Zn(pc)] (H2pc=phthalocyanine) as a mediator with a current efficiency of 50% during a 12-h electrolysis. Conductive microemulsions have also been employed for the destruction of aliphatic halides and DDT in the presence of [Co(bpy)3]2+ (bpy=2,2 -bipyridine) [168] or metal phthalocyanine tetrasulfonates [169]. 

There are also natural geochemical anomalies where soils are enriched by cadmium, for example, in the central parts of Sweden. Here the cultivation of crops accumulating cadmium (grains, potato, some grasses) is not recommended. In the coastal marine areas the cadmium mobility in soils is stimulated by its complexation with chlorine. 

Their mobility may be increased by the simultaneous presence of organic solvents such as mineral oil. The half-life of TCDD in soil has been reported as 10-12 years, whereas photochemical degradation seems to be considerably faster but with a large variation that might be explained by experimental differences (solvents used, etc.). Highly chlorinated PCDD/PCDFs seem to be more resistant to degradation than those with just a few chlorine atoms. 

Very low levels are found in water and air. High levels in soils, sediments and animals. Occurrence in the environment related to chlorination degree obtained by photolysis >chlorination degree> persistence... 

Simple anions in soil are the halogens, chlorine (Cl ), and bromine (Br ). If present, the other halogens—fluoride, F, and iodide, I-—will also occur as simple anions. Because the compounds of these anions are generally soluble, they readily leach out of the soil and so are present at low concentrations. Exceptions occur in low-rainfall regions where significant, sometimes deleterious (to plants and animals), levels of simple anions can be found. 

Zuloaga O, Etxebarria N, Fernandez LA, Madariaga J. Comparison of accelerated solvent extraction with microwave-assisted extraction and Soxhlet for the extraction of chlorinated biphenyls in soil samples. Trends Anal. Chem. 1998 17 642-647. 

This technique has been applied to the determination of chlorinated insecticides, carbamate insecticides and substituted urea type herbicides in soil and chloroaliphatic hydrocarbons in non-saline sediments. Separation is usually achieved on thin layers of silica gel or alumina. 

This technique has been used for the determination of polychlorobiphenyls, polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorodibenzofurans, alkyl phosphates, chlorinated insecticides, organophosphorus insecticides, triazine herbicides. Dacthal insecticide, insecticide/herbicide mixtures, mixtures of organic compounds and organotin compounds in soils, and polyaromatic compounds, polychlorobiphenyls, chlorinated insecticides and organotin compounds in non-saline sediments and anionic surfactants in sludges. 

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