Cause-and-effect

Odors play a much greater role in human behavior than previously thought. The sense of smell provides a direct link with the function of the brain therefore, the further study of olfaction can only advance the learning of causes and effects of stimuli to the brain. 

Fig. 4. Cause and effect diagram of off-standard polymer production.

The seventh tool is the scatter or correlation diagram also known as an XY plot (50). This plot of one variable vs another is most useful in confirming interrelationships. Thus, scatter diagrams can verify the relationships shown in the cause and effect diagram. 

Equations of the type considered here occur quite frequently in practice in what can be called cause-and-effect systems. 

It is also clear that it is difficult to relate cause and effect to any specific chemical since, with the exception of point source effluents, many waterways contain a multitude of chemicals, of which the active endocrine disruptor may not be that which has been measured in the water or tissue. For such reasons, many studies have used in vitro experiments in which isolated tissue, either from a control animal or one captured in a polluted water system, is exposed to a single pollutant in the laboratory. Such experiments have shown significant disruption to testicular activity by a wide range of xenobiotics, including cadmium, lindane, DDT, cythion, hexadrin and PCBs. ... 

Completeness There can never be a guarantee that all accident situations, causes, and effects have been considered. 

Q7 PROCESS CHART. PARETO ANALYSIS, CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM, HISTOGRAM, CORRELATION DIAGRAMS, PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS, CHECK SHEETS... 

The so-called Q7 tools and techniques, Cause and Effect Diagrams, Pareto Analysis, etc. (Bicheno, 1994 Dale and McQuater, 1998 Straker, 1995), are applicable to any stage of the product development process. Indeed they support the working of some of the techniques mentioned, for example using a Pareto chart for prioritizing the potential risks in terms of the RPN index for a design as determined in FMEA (see Appendix III). 

Nimitz, Walter W., Pulsation and Vibration, Part I. Causes and Effects, Part II. Analysis and Control. Pipe Line Industry, Part 1, August 1968, pp.. 6-79. Part II, September 1968, pp.. 19 2. 

KDC has a cause and effect relationship between as the primary cause leading to secondary failures. Besides its drastic operational effects on redundant systems, the numerical etlects that reduce sy.stem reliability are pronounced Equation 2.4-5 shows that the probability ut failing a redundant. system composed of n components is the component probability raised to the n-th power. If a common clement couples the subsystems. Equation 2.4-5 is not correct and the failure rate is the failure rate of the common element. KDC is very serious because the time from primary failure to secondary failures may be too short to mitigate. The PSA Procedures Guide (NUREG,/CR-2.3(X)) cl.issities this type as "Type 2."... 

The marketing information primarily identifies either problems or opportunities. Problems will relate to your existing products and services and should indicate why there has been a decline in sales or an increase in returns. In order to solve these problems a search for possible causes should be conducted and one valid method for doing this is to use the Cause and Effect Diagram. Opportunities will relate to future products and services and should indicate unsatisfied wants. There are three ways of collecting such data by observation, survey, and experiment. 

Cause and effect diagrams - used to analyze the characteristics of a process or situation... 

Statistical techniques can be used for a variety of reasons, from sampling product on receipt to market analysis. Any technique that uses statistical theory to reveal information is a statistical technique, but not all applications of statistics are governed by the requirements of this part of the standard. Techniques such as Pareto Analysis and cause and effect diagrams are regarded as statistical techniques in ISO 9000-2 and although numerical data is used, there is no probability theory involved. These techniques are used for problem solving, not for making product acceptance decisions. 

The guidance for tliis element covers responsibilities and authorities, determination of the significance of a quality (ESH/PSM) related problem, root cause investigation, cause-and-effect analysis, preventive actions and additional controls, and change documentation. For ESH/PSM, this element might be interpreted as covering both potential hazards as well as actual problems. 

Fishbone Diagrams are cause-and-effect diagrams used in quality management to help describe all the activities that can influence the management process and its outcome. These diagrams show the relationship between different activities and how they are grouped around specific types of activity. 

This study investigated risks to the public from serious accidents which could occur at the industrial facilities in this part of Essex, U.K. Results are expressed as risk to an individual and societal risk from both existing and proposed installations. Risk indices were also determined for modified versions of the facilities to quantify the risk reduction from recommendations in the report. Nine industrial plants were analyzed along with hazardous material transport by water, road, rail and pipeline. The potential toxic, fire and explosion hazards were assessed for flammable liquids, ammonia, LPG, LNG, and hydrogen fluoride (HE). The 24 appendices to the report cover various aspects of the risk analysis. These include causes and effects of unconfined... 

Accidents such as fires, explosions, toxic emissions, and hazardous spills, are dealt with in Uie next cliapter. Tlie decision to include Uiese in a separate chapter was not as easy as one would expect since the topics of both chapters could be classified as accidents. However, in order to treat the accidents in a cause and effect marmer, it was felt Uiat fires, explosions, etc., could well be considered an effect arising from Uie generic accidents discussed in Uiis cliapter. 

All important factor in assessing tlie causes and effects of fires is tlie beluivior of a fire s flmne. Knowledge of a flame s spreading rate and heat intensity can reduce fire liazard potentials and fire damage. The classifications of flame behavior are ... 

In addition to assessing a fire s flame cliaracteristies to detennine tlie cause and effect of a fire, knowledge of tlie fire accident type will provide insight into its ignition source and possible fire protection and prevention methods. Electrical, chemical, and metal fires can occur in a solid, liquid, or gaseous pliase. Section 7.3 presents a detmled discussion of tliese fires and tlieir ignition sources. 

The flame behavior of a fire is important in determining tlie causes and effects of fires. There are several classificiitions of flames orifice flames, pool flames, fireballs. Jet fimnes, and flash fires. Orifice or pipe flames are characterized as eitlier prenii. ed flame or diffusion flmiies. Pool flames are flames on ground pools and flames on tanks. Fireballs radiate intense heat, wliich can cause fatal bums and can quickly ignite otlier materials. Jet flame or flares also radiate intense heat. 

It is important to keep in mind that statistically based studies by themselves can never prove the e.xistence of a cause and effect relationship. However, such obseix ations may be used to generate or to test a hypothesis. Many possibilities exist for introducing bias in this type of investigation, and statistical correlations may be fortuitous. 

While correlation can indicate relationships, it does not imply cause and effect. 

The distinction between machine conditions and fabricating variables is a necessary one to avoid mistakes in using problem-and-solution or cause-and-effect relationships to advantage. If the processing variables are properly defined and measured, not necessarily the machine settings, they can be directly... 

Within these tortuous systems there exists considerable opportunity for process contamination, corrosion, and equipment malfunction to occur, with cause-and-effect problems creating further impact downstream and placing additional demands on monitoring and control efforts. 

In typical cause-and-effect fashion, these particular problems stem from less than satisfactory boiler waterside conditions and have their origins in any of several, often interrelated, mechanical, operational, or water-steam chemistry irregularities. 

Corrosion anywhere within the steam-water circuits results in metal wastage and possible equipment failure. And if the boiler plant is not operated correctly or if the water chemistry is not maintained within certain control parameters, the generated steam may contain contaminants in a cause-and-effect process that ultimately affects the utilization of the steam, reducing quality in a number of areas, and increasing fuel, manufacturing, or maintenance costs. 

Where problems develop, there is almost always a chain of cause and effect rather than any single cause, so that problems originating, for example, in the pre-boiler FW system may produce additional problems in the boiler itself, or perhaps the post-boiler condensate system, or in any balance of plant equipment such as a turbine. 

Not all the problems that arise are clear-cut in fact, one problem may often mask another problem- or several minor problems may prove to be interdependent—providing a chain of cause and effect. As a result, different authorities may not always agree on the fundamental cause of a particular problem or even the precise chemistry involved. Terminology and problem definitions also may vary from country to country. 

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