Catalysts layer

The CO oxidative stripping peak is very sharp, and only the Ft surface that meets the three-phase regions can contribute. 

Catalyst layer can also be made by other methods such as electrochemical deposition (not practical for large scale production) and physical vapor deposition (PVD). By using the PVD method 3M has constructed novel 

The electrode can also be made with multiple catalyst layers. Each layer has different composition and structure (e.g., catalyst type and loading, support type and loading, ionomer content, PTFE content, porosity, and thickness) in order to achieve higher performance and durability and lower total precious metal loading. Of course, the manufacturing process will be slower and more costly. 

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An unstabilized high surface area alumina siaters severely upon exposure to temperatures over 900°C. Sintering is a process by which the small internal pores ia the particles coalesce and lose large fractions of the total surface area. This process is to be avoided because it occludes some of the precious metal catalyst sites. The network of small pores and passages for gas transfer collapses and restricts free gas exchange iato and out of the activated catalyst layer resulting ia thermal deactivation of the catalyst. 

Since no special ligand design is usually required to dissolve transition metal complexes in ionic liquids, the application of ionic ligands can be an extremely useful tool with which to immobilize the catalyst in the ionic medium. In applications in which the ionic catalyst layer is intensively extracted with a non-miscible solvent (i.e., under the conditions of biphasic catalysis or during product recovery by extraction) it is important to ensure that the amount of catalyst washed from the ionic liquid is extremely low. Full immobilization of the (often quite expensive) transition metal catalyst, combined with the possibility of recycling it, is usually a crucial criterion for the large-scale use of homogeneous catalysis (for more details see Section 5.3.5). 

BMIM][PFg] as co-solvent during distillative product isolation - apparatus for distillative product isolation from the ionic catalyst layer. 

Both reactions were carried out under two-phase conditions with the help of an additional organic solvent (such as iPrOH). The catalyst could be reused with the same activity and enantioselectivity after decantation of the hydrogenation products. A more recent example, again by de Souza and Dupont, has been reported. They made a detailed study of the asymmetric hydrogenation of a-acetamidocin-namic acid and the kinetic resolution of methyl ( )-3-hydroxy-2-methylenebu-tanoate with chiral Rh(I) and Ru(II) complexes in [BMIM][BF4] and [BMIM][PFg] [55]. The authors described the remarkable effects of the molecular hydrogen concentration in the ionic catalyst layer on the conversion and enantioselectivity of these reactions. The solubility of hydrogen in [BMIM][BF4] was found to be almost four times higher than in [BMIM][PFg]. 

BMIMJCI/SnCb ionic liquid as catalyst layer. 

The higher activity of the catalyst [(mall)Ni(dppmo)][SbFg] in [BMIM][PFg] (TOF = 25,425 h ) relative to the reaction under identical conditions in CFF2C12 (TOF = 7591 h ) can be explained by the fast extraction of products and side products out of the catalyst layer and into the organic phase. A high concentration of internal olefins (from oligomerization and consecutive isomerization) at the catalyst is known to reduce catalytic activity, due to the formation of fairly stable Ni-olefin complexes. 

It is noteworthy that the best results could be obtained only with very pure ionic liquids and by use of an optimized reactor set-up. The contents of halide ions and water in the ionic liquid were found to be crucial parameters, since both impurities poisoned the cationic catalyst. Furthermore, the catalytic results proved to be highly dependent on all modifications influencing mass transfer of ethylene into the ionic catalyst layer. A 150 ml autoclave stirred from the top with a special stirrer... 

Obviously, there are many good reasons to study ionic liquids as alternative solvents in transition metal-catalyzed reactions. Besides the engineering advantage of their nonvolatile natures, the investigation of new biphasic reactions with an ionic catalyst phase is of special interest. The possibility of adjusting solubility properties by different cation/anion combinations permits systematic optimization of the biphasic reaction (with regard, for example, to product selectivity). Attractive options to improve selectivity in multiphase reactions derive from the preferential solubility of only one reactant in the catalyst solvent or from the in situ extraction of reaction intermediates from the catalyst layer. Moreover, the application of an ionic liquid catalyst layer permits a biphasic reaction mode in many cases where this would not be possible with water or polar organic solvents (due to incompatibility with the catalyst or problems with substrate solubility, for example). 

In this book we have decided to concentrate on purely synthetic applications of ionic liquids, just to keep the amount of material to a manageable level. FFowever, we think that synthetic and non-synthetic applications (and the people doing research in these areas) should not be treated separately for a number of reasons. Each area can profit from developments made in the other field, especially concerning the availability of physicochemical data and practical experience of development of technical processes using ionic liquids. In fact, in all production-scale chemical reactions some typically non-synthetic aspects (such as the heat capacity of the ionic liquid or product extraction from the ionic catalyst layer) have to be considered anyway. The most important reason for close collaboration by synthetic and non-synthetic scientists in the field of ionic liquid research is, however, the fact that in both areas an increase in the understanding of the ionic liquid material is the key factor for successful future development. 

In all tests, the temperature in the first- and second-stage reactors was kept within the necessary temperature limits of 288°-482°C. Because the carbon monoxide concentration was low in many of the tests, the second stage was not used to full capacity as is indicated by the temperature rise in runs 23, 24, and 27. The temperature profile shows the characteristic rise to a steady value. With the space velocities used (<5000 ft3/ft3 hr), the temperature profile is fully developed in the first stage within 30.0 in. of the top of the catalyst bed. A characteristic dip in temperature was observed over the first 8-10 in. of the catalyst bed in all runs. This temperature profile may indicate the presence of deactivated catalyst in this region, but, until the catalyst can be removed for examination, the cause of the temperature drop cannot be determined. There is no evidence that this low temperature zone is becoming progressively deeper. It is possible that an unrecorded brief upset in the purification system may have poisoned some of the top catalyst layers. 

Most of the actual reactions involve a three-phase process gas, liquid, and solid catalysts are present. Internal and external mass transfer limitations in porous catalyst layers play a central role in three-phase processes. The governing phenomena are well known since the days of Thiele [43] and Frank-Kamenetskii [44], but transport phenomena coupled to chemical reactions are not frequently used for complex organic systems, but simple - often too simple - tests based on the use of first-order Thiele modulus and Biot number are used. Instead, complete numerical simulations are preferable to reveal the role of mass and heat transfer at the phase boundaries and inside the porous catalyst particles. 

The reactions are still most often carried out in batch and semi-batch reactors, which implies that time-dependent, dynamic models are required to obtain a realistic description of the process. Diffusion and reaction in porous catalyst layers play a central role. The ultimate goal of the modehng based on the principles of chemical reaction engineering is the intensification of the process by maximizing the yields and selectivities of the desired products and optimizing the conditions for mass transfer. 

Reaction, diffusion, and catalyst deactivation in a porous catalyst layer are considered. A general model for mass transfer and reaction in a porous particle with an arbitrary geometry can be written as follows ... 

A fuel cell consists of an ion-conducting membrane (electrolyte) and two porous catalyst layers (electrodes) in contact with the membrane on either side. The hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode of the fuel cell yields electrons, which are transported through an external circuit to reach the cathode. At the cathode, electrons are consumed in the oxygen reduction reaction. The circuit is completed by permeation of ions through the membrane. 

The catalyst inks were prepared by dispersing the catalyst nanoparticles into an appropriate amoimt of Millipore water and 5wt% Nafion solution. Then, both the anode and cathode catalyst inks were directly painted using a direct painting technique onto either side of a Nafion 117 membrane. A carbon cloth diffusion layer was placed on to top of both the anode and cathode catalyst layers [3-5]. The active cell area was 2.25cm. ... 

The transient response of DMFC is inherently slower and consequently the performance is worse than that of the hydrogen fuel cell, since the electrochemical oxidation kinetics of methanol are inherently slower due to intermediates formed during methanol oxidation [3]. Since the methanol solution should penetrate a diffusion layer toward the anode catalyst layer for oxidation, it is inevitable for the DMFC to experience the hi mass transport resistance. The carbon dioxide produced as the result of the oxidation reaction of methanol could also partly block the narrow flow path to be more difScult for the methanol to diflhise toward the catalyst. All these resistances and limitations can alter the cell characteristics and the power output when the cell is operated under variable load conditions. Especially when the DMFC stack is considered, the fluid dynamics inside the fuel cell stack is more complicated and so the transient stack performance could be more dependent of the variable load conditions. 

MEAs used in this study were prepared in the following procedure [5]. The diffusion backing layers for anode and cathode were a Teflon-treated (20 wt. %) carbon paper (Toray 090, E-Tek) of 0.29 mm thickness. A thin diffusion layer was formed on top of the backing layer by spreading Vulcan XC-72 (85 wt. %) with PTFE (15 wt. %) for both anode and cathode. After the diffusion layers were sintered at a temperature of 360 C for 15 min., the catalyst layer was then formed with Pl/Ru (4 mg/cm ) and Nafion (1 mg/cm ) for anode and with Pt (4 mg/cm ) and Nafion (1 mg/cm ) for cathode. The prepared electrodes were placed either side of a pretreated Nafion 115 membrane and the assembly was hot-pressed at 85 kg/cm for 3 min. at 135 C. 

Figure 2.52 2-D model of a counter-current heat-exchanger reactor with a nanoporous catalyst layer deposited on the channel wall.

Figure 2.53 Normalized concentration profile of a reacting species across a micro channel of 500 pm width with a 100 pm catalyst layer deposited on the wall.

In chemical micro process technology with porous catalyst layers attached to the channel walls, convection through the porous medium can often be neglected. When the reactor geometry allows the flow to bypass the porous medium it will follow the path of smaller hydrodynamic resistance and will not penetrate the pore space. Thus, in micro reactors with channels coated with a catalyst medium, the flow velocity inside the medium is usually zero and heat and mass transfer occur by diffusion alone. 

Figure 2.66 Cross-section of a micro channel coated with a catalyst layer (left) (source INM, Saarbrucken, Germany) and typical surface morphology of wash-coat catalyst carriers (right).

Considering the major importance of catalysts, especially for gas-phase reactions, a separate section was allocated to the description of techniques for catalyst layer formation in micro channels and the respective analytical characterization (see Section 3.1). 

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