Carbon production capacities

The lithium carbonate production capacity of various companies over the years to 2002 is listed in Table 1.43. The primary producers in 2002 were (1) SQM Chemicals, with a capacity of 22,000 mt/yr of LCE from the Salar de Atacama in Chile. (2) Chemetall GmbH (who acquired the former Cyprus Foote Minerals) with 16,000 mt/yr capacity on the Salar de Atacama, and 5700 mt/yr from Clayton Valley in Nevada. And (3) FMC with 20,000 mt/yr of idle capacity from the Salar de Hombre Muerto, Argentina (Jarvis, 2000 Sailer and O Driscoll, 2000). 

Production and Shipment. Estimated adiponitrile production capacities in the U.S. in 1992 were about 625 thousand metric tons and worldwide capacity was in excess of lO metric tons. The DOT/IMO classification for adiponitrile is class 6.1 hazard, UN No. 2205. It requires a POISON label on all containers and is in packing group III. Approved materials of constmction for shipping, storage, and associated transportation equipment are carbon steel and type 316 stainless steel. Either centrifugal or positive displacement pumps may be used. Carbon dioxide or chemical-foam fire extinguishers should be used. There are no specifications for commercial adiponitrile. The typical composition is 99.5 wt % adiponitrile. Impurities that may be present depend on the method of manufacture, and thus, vary depending on the source. 

Excluding Eastern European countries and China where production figures have not been pubHshed, the world production capacity of activated carbon was estimated to be 375,000 metric tons in 1990 (35). The price of most products was 0.70 to 5.50 /kg, but some specialty carbons were more expensive (36). Eorty percent of the production capacity was in the United States, 30% in Western Europe, 20% in Japan, and 10% in other Pacific Rim countries (Table 2). 

Production capacity was almost equally spHt between powdered and nonpowdered activated carbon products. Powdered activated carbon, a less expensive form used in Hquid-phase appHcations, is generally used once and then disposed of. In some cases, however, granular and shaped products are regenerated and reused (35). In 1990 production capacity for granular and shaped products was spHt with about two-thirds for Hquid-phase and one-third for gas-phase appHcations (37). 

Over the last decade production capacity in the United States remained essentially unchanged, but minor fluctuations occurred in response to changes in environmental regulations (38). A similar reaction was noted worldwide (35). The current demand for activated carbon is estimated at 93% of production capacity. The near-term growth in demand is projected to be approximately 5.5%/yr (39). 

The estimated production capacity of activated carbon in the United States is shown in Table 3 for seven manufacturers (41). The principal producers are Calgon Carbon (37%), American-Norit (26%), Westvaco (19%), and Atochem (10%). Several other companies purchase activated carbon for resale but do not manufacture products. 

Western Europe has seven manufacturers of activated carbon. The two largest, Norit and Chemviron (a subsidiary of Calgon), account for 70% of West European production capacity, and Ceca accounts for 13% (42). Japan is the third largest producer of activated carbon, having 18 manufacturers, but four companies share over 50% of the total Japanese capacity (43). Six Pacific Rim countries account for the balance of the world production capacity of activated carbon, 90% of which is in the Philippines and Sri Lanka (42). As is the case with other businesses, regional markets for activated carbon products have become international, lea ding to consoHdation of manufacturers. Calgon, Norit, Ceca, and Sutcliffe-Speakman are examples of multinational companies. 

The shrinkage in demand has resulted in a restmcturing of the carbon black-industry. Several of the principal multinational oil companies have left the business including Ashland, Cities Service Co., Phillips, and Conoco. Some plants have changed ownership. In the United States this has increased the production capacities of Degussa, Sid Richardson, and Huber. Today s U.S. industry consists of six principal producers. Rated capacities of the six U.S. manufacturers is shown in Table 13. Cabot Corp. and Columbian Chemicals are the leading producers, followed by Degussa, Sid Richardson, J. M. Huber Corp., and Witco. A survey of the future markets and present stmcture of the carbon black industry has been presented (1). 

The earliest method for manufacturiag carbon disulfide involved synthesis from the elements by reaction of sulfur and carbon as hardwood charcoal in externally heated retorts. Safety concerns, short Hves of the retorts, and low production capacities led to the development of an electric furnace process, also based on reaction of sulfur and charcoal. The commercial use of hydrocarbons as the source of carbon was developed in the 1950s, and it was still the predominate process worldwide in 1991. That route, using methane and sulfur as the feedstock, provides high capacity in an economical, continuous unit. Retort and electric furnace processes are stiU used in locations where methane is unavailable or where small plants are economically viable, for example in certain parts of Africa, China, India, Russia, Eastern Europe, South America, and the Middle East. Other technologies for synthesis of carbon disulfide have been advocated, but none has reached commercial significance. 

Depending on energy and raw material costs, the minimum economic carbon disulfide plant size is generaHy in the range of about 2000—5000 tons per year for an electric furnace process and 15,000—20,000 tons per year for a hydrocarbon-based process. A typical charcoal—sulfur facHity produces approximately 5000 tons per year. Hydrocarbon—sulfur plants tend be on the scale of 50,000—200,000 tons per year. It is estimated that 53 carbon disulfide plants existed throughout the world in 1991 as shown in Table 2. The production capacities of known hydrocarbon—sulfur based plants are Hsted in Table 3. The United States carbon disulfide capacity dropped sharply during 1991 when Akzo Chemicals closed down a 159,000 ton per year plant at Delaware City, Delaware (126). The United States carbon disulfide industry stiH accounts for about 12% of the total worldwide instaHed capacity. 

There is a general understanding of the reasons why nutrients are critical to the productive capacity of biological systems. The dry biomass of plants and animals comprises some 20 elements, the predominant atoms being those of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Moreover, ideally they are required in fairly... 

Today, carbon fibers are still mainly of interest as reinforcement in composite materials [7] where high strength and stiffness, combined with low weight, are required. For example, the world-wide consumption of carbon fibers in 1993 was 7,300 t (compared with a production capacity of 13,000 t) of which 36 % was used in aerospace applications, 43 % in sports materials, with the remaining 21 % being used in other industries. This consumption appears to have increased rapidly (at 15 % per year since the early 1980s), at about the same rate as production, accompanied by a marked decrease in fiber cost (especially for high modulus fibers). 

The growth of woody biomass in one year s annual increment represents the quantity of material that can be harvested without affecting the productive capacity of the forest in subsequent years. The gross annual increment (GAI) is the yearly increase in woody biomass, whereas the net annual increment (NAI) is the GAI adjusted for natural losses such as fire, insect damage and so on. The NAI is often referred to as the allowable cut . In boreal and temperate zones, the removal of woody biomass is lower than the NAI, and thus these forests are presently acting as net sinks for carbon dioxide (Figure 1.6). If all of the NAI was harvested, then the forests would no longer act as sinks for CO2, but would be in balance with the atmosphere. 

In 1995, approximately 6 to 6.5 x 106 t of carbon black were produced. Production capacities were estimated at the same time to be 8 x 106 t/a (Table 34). The annual growth rate, on the average 7.9% per year between 1965 and 1975 in the United States, has decreased substantially, primarily in respect of rubber blacks due to longer tire life and the fact that the car market is reaching a saturation. Therefore, the future growth rate of the carbon black market is expected to be rather limited and will not exceed 1 to 2 % per year. 

Nearly 40 % of the total worldwide production capacity of carbon black is concentrated in the United States and Western Europe. A detailed survey of the capacities in Western Europe is given in Table 35. 

Table 35. Carbon black production capacity in Europe (1995/96) ...

The sequestration of C02 in deep saline formations does not produce value-added by-products, but it has other advantages. First, the estimated carbon storage capacity of saline formations in the United States is large, making them a viable long-term solution. It has been estimated that deep saline formations in the United States could potentially store up to 500 billion ton of C02. 

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