Hydrocarbon bases

Refiners will turn to reformulated motor fuels where the octane number will be increased by alkylate or oxygenated compounds. It has indeed been shown for a long time that oxygenated compounds, alcohols, ethers and ketones Improved the octane number of hydrocarbon-based blends (Whitcomb, 1975). 

The first resins to be produced on a commercial scale were the coumarone—indene or coal-tar resins (1) production in the United States was started before 1920. These resins were dominant until the development of petroleum resins, which were estabHshed as important raw materials by the mid-1940s. Continued development of petroleum-based resins has led to a wide variety of aHphatic, cyclodiene, and aromatic hydrocarbon-based resins. The principal components of petroleum resins are based on piperylenes, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), styrene, indene, and their respective alkylated derivatives. 

Table 9 gives U.S. production and sales of hydrocarbon-based surfactants by class for 1991. AH quantities are reported in terms of 100%-active agent diluents and other additives in the products as sold are omitted. 

Heteroatom Chain Backbone Polymers. This class of polymers includes polyesters, which have been widely studied from the initial period of research on biodegradable polymers, polyamides, polyethers, polyacetals, and other condensation polymers. Their linkages are quite frequendy found in nature and these polymers are more likely to biodegrade than hydrocarbon-based polymers. 

Heavy Hydrocarbon-Based Partial Oxidation Processes. Two major partial oxidation processes are commercially available, the SheU process (38) and the Texaco process (39). Operating conditions in the gas generator vary from 1200°C to 1370°C and from 3100 kPa to 8270 kPa (450—1200 psig). Generally, heavy oils are the hydrocarbon feeds however, the process can also accommodate feeds from natural gas to residual oils. 

Calcium Carbide and its Derivatives. Although hydrocarbon-based acetylene production has become mote important, eady manufacture of acetylene was based on manufacture of the iatermediate, calcium carbide [73-20-7J, CaC2. This ionic acetyUde is produced by reaction of lime and carbon ia electric-arc furnaces (16). 

Depending on energy and raw material costs, the minimum economic carbon disulfide plant size is generaHy in the range of about 2000—5000 tons per year for an electric furnace process and 15,000—20,000 tons per year for a hydrocarbon-based process. A typical charcoal—sulfur facHity produces approximately 5000 tons per year. Hydrocarbon—sulfur plants tend be on the scale of 50,000—200,000 tons per year. It is estimated that 53 carbon disulfide plants existed throughout the world in 1991 as shown in Table 2. The production capacities of known hydrocarbon—sulfur based plants are Hsted in Table 3. The United States carbon disulfide capacity dropped sharply during 1991 when Akzo Chemicals closed down a 159,000 ton per year plant at Delaware City, Delaware (126). The United States carbon disulfide industry stiH accounts for about 12% of the total worldwide instaHed capacity. 

Many similar hydrocarbon duids such as kerosene and other paraffinic and naphthenic mineral oils and vegetable oils such as linseed oil [8001-26-17, com oil, soybean oil [8001-22-7] peanut oil, tall oil [8000-26-4] and castor oil are used as defoamers. Liquid fatty alcohols, acids and esters from other sources and poly(alkylene oxide) derivatives of oils such as ethoxylated rosin oil [68140-17-0] are also used. Organic phosphates (6), such as tributyl phosphate, are valuable defoamers and have particular utiHty in latex paint appHcations. Another important class of hydrocarbon-based defoamer is the acetylenic glycols (7), such as 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-diol which are widely used in water-based coatings, agricultural chemicals, and other areas where excellent wetting is needed. 

A variety of waxy hydrophobic hydrocarbon-based soHd phases are used including fatty acid amides and sulfonamides, hydrocarbon waxes such as montan wax [8002-53-7], and soHd fatty acids and esters. The amides are particularly important commercially. One example is the use of ethylenediamine distearamide [110-30-5] as a component of latex paint and paper pulp blackHquor defoamer (11). Hydrocarbon-based polymers are also used as the soHd components of antifoaming compositions (5) examples include polyethylene [9002-88-4], poly(vinyl chloride) [9002-86-2], and polymeric ion-exchange resins. 

Finally, selective separation and dewatering of one suspended substance in a slurry containing different minerals or precipitates is possible by selectively adsorbing a magnetic material (usually hydrophobic) onto a soHd that is also naturally or chemically conditioned to a hydrophobic state. This process (Murex) was used on both sulfide ores and some oxides (145). More recently, hydrocarbon-based ferrofluids were tested and shown to selectively adsorb on coal from slurries of coal and mineral matter, allowing magnetic recovery (147). Copper and zinc sulfides were similarly recoverable as a dewatered product from waste-rock slurries (148). 

All these elastomers, especially poly(ethylene- (9-butylene) and poly(ethylene- (9-propylene), are nonpolar. The corresponding block copolymers can thus be compounded with hydrocarbon-based extending oils, but do not have much oil resistance. Conversely, block copolymers with polar polyester or polyether elastomer segments have Htde affinity for such hydrocarbon oils and so have better oil resistance. 

At the end of its useful life, the tire, with its hydrocarbon-based constituents, is a valuable source of energy, with a higher energy value than coal. By the mid-1990s, approximately 80 percent of the tires worn out annually in the United States were being recycled, recovered, or reused in some fashion, with three-fourths of these seiwing as fuel for energy production m boilers and cement kilns. 

In addition to being major sources of hydrocarbon-based petrochemicals, crude oils and natural gases are precursors of a special group of compounds or mixtures that are classified as nonhydrocarbon intermediates. Among these are the synthesis gas mixture, hydrogen, sulfur, and carbon black. These materials are of great economic importance and are discussed in Chapter 4. 

Without the influence of burning rate catalysts most of these hydrocarbon prop bits have similar burning rates and ballistic behavior. They may differ significantly in mechanical properties, particularly as a function of temp. Most hydrocarbon-based composites are used in larger rockets because of their ease of fabrication and high specific impulse. Polaris first and second stages, the Titan 3C booster rocket and Mlnuteman are all powered with composite proplnts... 

This formulation is a complex, hydrocarbon-based fuel conditioner for difficult fuel oils containing a high level of asphaltenes, sludges, and waxes. 

Fullerenes. Fullerenes are a family of aromatic hydrocarbons, based on the parent buckminsterfullerene (108 that have a variety of very... 

The investigations on boundary lubrication used to focus on the friction elements made of metallic materials, and of steel in particular. This is, of course, due to the fact that a great majority of machines are built from metal and steel, but it is also because the hydrocarbon-based oils have been proven to be an extraordinarily good lubricant for metal surfaces. Unfortunately, the conventional oils are not so effective to lubricate the components made of other materials, like ceramics, rubbers, silicon, etc., so that the study on new types of lubricants suitable for such materials has attracted great attention in recent years. 

One final note on this topic involves an examination of diploid, triploid, and tetraploid plants for their leaf exudate hydrocarbons (Seigler et al., 1975). -Alkanes having odd numbered chains from to were recorded for almost all plants collected from several sites with much more limited distribution of hydrocarbons based on and C g. The hydrocarbon data do not assist in distinguishing groups within this species. 

J. Dahl, K. Harris, and K. McKown. Uses of small particle size cement in water and hydrocarbon based slurries. In Proceedings Volume, pages 25-29.9th Kansas Univ et al Tertiary Oil Recovery Conf (Wichita, KS, 3/6-3Z7), 1991. 

Surfactants and Colloids in Supercritical Fluids Because very few nonvolatile molecules are soluble in CO2, many types of hydrophilic or lipophilic species may be dispersed in the form of polymer latexes (e.g., polystyrene), microemulsions, macroemulsions, and inorganic suspensions of metals and metal oxides (Shah et al., op. cit.). The environmentally benign, nontoxic, and nonflammable fluids water and CO2 are the two most abundant and inexpensive solvents on earth. Fluorocarbon and hydrocarbon-based surfactants have been used to form reverse micelles, water-in-C02... 

Typical hydraulic fracturing fluid compositions have been described by several authors (1 ). The fluids may be aqueous or hydrocarbon base and may also contain energizing gases such as nitrogen or... 

A surfactant was defined in Chapter 8 as an agent, soluble or dispersible in a liquid, which reduces the surface tension of the liquid [1]. It is helpful to visualise surfactant molecules as being composed of opposing solubility tendencies. Thus, those effective in aqueous media typically contain an oil-soluble hydrocarbon-based chain (the hydrophobe) and a smaller water-solubilising moiety which may or may not confer ionic character (the hydrophile). The limitations of space do not permit a comprehensive detailed treatment of the chemistry of surfactants. The emphasis is therefore on a broad-brush discussion of the principal types of surfactant encountered in textile preparation and coloration processes. Comprehensive accounts of the chemistry and properties of surfactants are available [2-13]. A useful and lucid account of the chemistry and technology of surfactant manufacturing processes is given by Davidsohn and Milwidsky [ 14] ... 

Fan, X., McLeod, M.C., Enick, R.M. and Roberts, C.B. (2006) Preparation of silver nanopartides via reduction of a highly C02-soluble hydrocarbon-based metal precursor. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 45 (10), 3343—3347. 

In a review of incidents involving explosive reactivity of liquid chlorine with various organic auxiliary materials, two involved hydrocarbons. A polypropylene filter element fabricated with zinc oxide filler reacted explosively, rupturing the steel case previously tested to over 300 bar. Zinc chloride derived from the oxide may have initiated the runaway reaction. Hydrocarbon-based diaphragm pump oils or metal-drawing waxes were violently or explosively reactive [8], A violent explosion in a wax chlorination plant may have involved unplanned contact of liquid chlorine with wax or chlorinated wax residues in a steel trap. Corrosion products in the trap may have catalysed the runaway reaction, but hydrogen (also liberated by corrosion in the trap) may also have been involved [9],... 

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