Human breast milk levels

Eljarrat E, Guerra P, Martinez E, Farre M, Alvarez JG, L6pez-Teij6n M, Barcelo D (2009) Hexabromocyclododecane in human breast milk levels and enantiomeric patterns. Environ Sci Technol 43 1940-1946... 

Schecter A, Gasiewicz TA. 1987b. Human breast milk levels of dioxins and dibenzofurans ... 

Human Breast Milk Levels of Dioxins and Dibenzofurans Significance with Respect to Current Risk Assessments... 

Public concern about PBDE levels in the environment was heightened when it was shown that a sharp increase in the concentration of certain PBDEs had occurred in human breast milk over only a 10-year period (Meironyte et al. 1999 Noren and Meironyte 2000), and the levels of exposure in some infants and toddlers were similar to those shown to cause developmental neurotoxicity in animal experiments (Costa and Giordano 2007). As a result of these concerns, the majority of commercial PBDE mixtures have been banned from manufacture, sale, and use within the European Union. 

PCDD/PCDFs accumulate in human adipose tissue, and the level reflects the history of intake by the individual. Several factors have been shown to affect adipose tissue concentrations/body burdens, notably age, the number of children and period of breastfeeding, and dietary habits. Breast-milk represents the most useful matrix for evaluating time trends of dioxins and many other POPs. Several factors affect the PCDD/PCDFs content of human breast-milk, most notably the mothers age, the duration of breast-feeding and the fat content of the milk. Studies should therefore ideally... 

There is no experimental evidence available to assess whether the toxicokinetics of -hexane differ between children and adults. Experiments in the rat model comparing kinetic parameters in weanling and mature animals after exposure to -hexane would be useful. These experiments should be designed to determine the concentration-time dependence (area under the curve) for blood levels of the neurotoxic /7-hcxane metabolite 2,5-hexanedione. w-Hcxanc and its metabolites cross the placenta in the rat (Bus et al. 1979) however, no preferential distribution to the fetus was observed. -Hexane has been detected, but not quantified, in human breast milk (Pellizzari et al. 1982), and a milk/blood partition coefficient of 2.10 has been determined experimentally in humans (Fisher et al. 1997). However, no pharmacokinetic experiments are available to confirm that -hexane or its metabolites are actually transferred to breast milk. Based on studies in humans, it appears unlikely that significant amounts of -hexane would be stored in human tissues at likely levels of exposure, so it is unlikely that maternal stores would be released upon pregnancy or lactation. A PBPK model is available for the transfer of M-hcxanc from milk to a nursing infant (Fisher et al. 1997) the model predicted that -hcxane intake by a nursing infant whose mother was exposed to 50 ppm at work would be well below the EPA advisory level for a 10-kg infant. However, this model cannot be validated without data on -hexane content in milk under known exposure conditions. 

Mes J, Davies DJ, Doucet J, et al. 1993. Levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in Canadian human breast milk and their relationship to some characteristics of the donors. Food Add Contam 10(4) 429-441. 

TCS has been identified in numerous studies in urine, serum, plasma, and human breast milk (Table 8). All levels are expressed as total TCS (imconjugated and conjugated). 

As early as 1961 scientists looked for and found measurable levels of POCs, indeed POCs that would become classified as POPs, in human fat and by 1965 in human breast milk [77]. While something of a surprise at the time, the current understanding of bioaccumulation and biomagnification explain this, as humans tend to eat high in the food web. For people reliant on alpine sources for food then, it is possible that they are exposed to higher levels of certain POCs, i.e. those that are subject to efficient mountain cold-trapping, than are people nearer to the POC sources. 

There have been no measurements of the levels of 1,4-dichlorobenzene or its metabolites in amniotic fluid, meconium, cord blood, or neonatal blood to investigate prenatal exposure. Consumption of breast milk can potentially expose nursing infants to 1,4-dichlorobenzene. Dichlorobenzene (all isomers) was detected in 100% of 42 samples of human breast milk collected in 5 urban areas of the United States at concentrations ranging from 0.04-68 ppb however, concentrations of 1,4-dichlorobenzene were not specified (Erickson et al. 1980). Dichlorobenzene (all isomers) was also identified in human breast milk in 8 of 12 women who were residents of Bayonne, New Jersey (6 women) Jersey City, New Jersey (2 women) Bridgeville, Pennsylvania (2 women) and Baton Rouge, Louisiana (2 women) however, concentrations of... 

Eglinton, B. A., Roberton, D. M., and Cummins, A. G. (1994). Phenot rpe of T cells, their soluble receptor levels, and cytokine profile of human breast milk. Immunol. Cell Biol. 72, 306-313. 

The fluoride content of human breast milk usually follows the natural daily fluoride intake during the first 6 months of life. This is especially important when comparing the daily fluoride intake by formula-fed and breastfed infants. In humans, fluoride is poorly transferred from plasma to breast milk [88,89]. A wide range (2-50 pg/L) of fluoride in breast milk has been reported [88-90], although considerably higher levels, exceeding 200 pg/L, have also been reported [91]. The wide range of concentrations reported in human milk can apparently be ascribed to analytical problems at low levels of fluoride. 

The concentrations of PBBs in the breast milk of females from the lowo peninsula of Michigan (exposed area) were generally higher than in breast milk of females from the upper peninsula (farthest from the sources) (Brilliant et al. 1978). PBB levels in breast milk of five females from the exposed farms were 0.21 92.7 mg/kg (Cordleet al. 1978 Humphrey and Hayner 1976). In a cohort of Michigan residents, the ratio of PBBs in breast milk to maternal serum was 107 122 to 1 and in adipose tissue to breast milk was 1.1 1.5 to 1 (Eyster et al. 1983 Landri n et al. 1979). The concentrations of PBBs found in human tissues and body fluids are given in Table 6-4. Recent levels of PBBs in human breast milk (i.e., 1990 to present) were not located (WHO 1994b). 

IGF-I, a single chain polypeptide, is a physiological constituent of bovine milk. During lactation, a typical IGF-I profile in cow s milk varies from 150 ng/ ml after parturition, to 25 ng/ml at the end of the first week of lactation, to 1 -5 ng/ml at day 200 of lactation (37, 38). However, data on the actual amount of IGF-I in milk are inconsistent since the physiological levels show a considerable variation depending on the age of animals, state of lactation, and nutritional status (39, 40). On the other hand, the IGF-I concentration in human breast milk at weeks 6-8 is 22 ng/ml. 

Of particular concern are the high PCB levels (human breast milk and the risk that human nurslings will ingest amounts in excess of the maximum allowable intakes. Milk PCB levels in occupationally exposed women may exceed those of the population at large by factors of 10 to 100. This source of exposure is viewed as a greater risk to the infant than that transferred via the placenta during the second and third trimesters (ref. 80, p. 478). 

In spite of the large amount of data available on the classical organochlo-rines and other chemicals in wild animals all over the world only very limited works are available on PTS levels in human samples, most of the recent works being in human breast milk (Tanabe and Subramanian, 2006). From the late 1990s there has been a steady increase in the works on PTS in Indian human samples. The most widely used samples from human are the human milk followed by blood, liver, hair, muscle and urine. 

Schecter, A., Furst, P., Furst, C., Meemken, H.A., Groebel, W., Constable, D., 1989a. Levels of polychlorinated dibenzofurans, dibenzodioxins, PCBs, DDT and DDE, hexachloro-benzene, dieldrin, hexachlorocyclohexanes and oxychlordane in human breast milk from the United States, Thailand, Vietnam, and Germany. Chemosphere 18, 445-454. 

In addition to the studies on the trends of POP levels in the environmental samples, time trends of human exposure is also an important issue for understanding the long-term toxic impacts on general population. Minh et al. (2004) assessed the decline in the rate of human exposure to DDTs and PCBs over the 10 years period (1989 and 2001). A first-order kinetic approach was used to estimate the declining rate of DDTs and PCBs in human breast milk collected from Vietnam. The decrease in the POPs such as DDTs, PCBs, and HCHs in human breast milk was suggested to follow first-order kinetic (Noren Meironyte, 2000). Another important factor for the assessment is the half-life (Aieci, 2) defined as the duration in which initial concentrations decrease to a half. On the basis of the residue concentrations of OCs in 1989 reported by Schecter et al. (1989a) and the levels in 2001 obtained by Minh et al. (2004), the rate constant and tdeci/2 were estimated. 

Malarvannan, G., Kunisue, T., Isobe, T., Takahashi, S., Sudaryanto, A., Prudente, M., Tanabe, S., 2007. Specific Accumulation of Organohalogen Compounds in Human Breast Milk from the Philippines Levels, Distribution, Accumulation Kinetics and Infant Health Risk. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Pioneering Studies of Young Scientists on Chemical Pollution and Environmental Changes, November 17-19, 2006, Ehime University, Matsuyama, lapan, pp. 175-178. 

The bioaccumulation pattern of OCs in human breast milk from Indonesia (DDTs > HCHs > PCBs > CHLs > HCB Sudaryanto et al., 2006b) was reported to be different with those in mussels and fish (Monirith et al., 2003 Sudaryanto et al., 2005b, 2007b), which showed higher level of PCBs and CHLs compared to HCHs. This may probably be because of differences in exposure route(s), and/or because the intakes of these compounds via seafood by the Indonesian population are not... 

Sudaryanto, A., Kunisue, T., Iwata, H., Adibroto, T.A., Hartono, P., Tanabe, S., 2006b. Specific accumulation of organochlorines in human breast milk from Indonesia Levels, distribution, accumulation kinetics and infant health risk. Environ. Pollut. 139, 107-117. 

To elucidate whether the DRC pollution sources are also present in developing countries, human breast milk samples were employed for chemical analysis. As summarized in Fig. 18.4, significant levels of DRCs were detected in human breast milk from developing countries,... 

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