Blood transfusions

Whole blood is seldom used ia modem blood transfusion. Blood is separated into its components. Transfusion therapy optimizes the use of the blood components, using each for a specific need. Red cell concentrates are used for patients needing oxygen transport, platelets are used for hemostasis, and plasma is used as a volume expander or a source of proteins needed for clotting of the blood. 

The discovery in 1900 of the existence of blood groups, together with improved understanding of the importance of sterile conditions, paved the way to modem blood transfusion therapy. In 1915, the feasibiUty of storage of whole blood was demonstrated. During World War I, the optimal concentration of citrate for use as an anticoagulant was determined. This anticoagulant was used until 1942, when the acid—citrate—dextrose (ACD) solution was developed. 

Blood transfusion is highly regulated worldwide by government institutions, such as the USFDA, and through associations of blood banks, such as the American Association of Blood Banks (AABB). Strict regulations on good manufacturing practices (GMP) have been estabhshed to ensure maximum safety of the transfused products. 

Full details of this work were pubHshed (6) and the processes, or variants of them, were introduced in a number of other countries. In the United States, the pharmaceutical industry continued to provide manufacturing sites, treating plasma fractionation as a normal commercial activity. In many other countries processing was undertaken by the Red Cross or blood transfusion services that emerged following Wodd War II. In these organisations plasma fractionation was part of a larger operation to provide whole blood, blood components, and speciaUst medical services on a national basis. These different approaches resulted in the development of two distinct sectors in the plasma fractionation industry ie, a commercial or for-profit sector based on paid donors and a noncommercial or not-for-profit sector based on unpaid donors. 

Guidelines for the Blood Transfusion Services in the United Kingdom, National Institute For Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, 1992. 

Other biomedical and biological appHcations of mictocapsules continue to be developed. For example, the encapsulation of enzymes continues to attract interest even though loss of enzyme activity due to harshness of the encapsulation protocols used has been a persistent problem (59). The use of mictocapsules in antibody hormone immunoassays has been reviewed (60). The encapsulation of hemoglobin as a ted blood substitute has received much attention because of AIDS and blood transfusions (61). 

A. J. Zuckemian and co-authors. Educational Book, XX Congress of International Society Blood Transfusion, British Blood Transfusion Society, Manchester, UK, 1988, pp. 1—155. 

The rubbers are also used for such diverse applications as blood transfusion tubing capable of sterilisation, antibiotic container closures, electric iron gaskets, domestic refrigerators and non-adhesive rubber-covered rollers for handling such materials as confectionery and adhesive tape. The cold-curing rubbers are of value in potting and encapsulation. 

Levy, O.L.. Martinowilz, U., Oran, A., Tauber, C. and Horoszowski, H., The use of fibrin tissue adhesive to reduce blood loss and the need for blood transfusion after total knee arthroplasty a prospective, randomized, mullicenter study. J. Bone Joint Surg.. 81A. 1580 (1999). 

Klein HG, Anstee DJ (2005) Mollison s blood transfusion in clinical medicine, 11th edn. Blackwell, Oxford... 

Rare cases of hemolytic anemia, including fatalities, have been reported with the administration of the cephalosporins. The patient should be monitored for anemia If a patient experiences anemia within 2 to 3 weeks after the start of cephalosporin therapy, drug-induced anemia should be considered. If hemolytic anemia is suspected, the primary health care provider will discontinue the drug therapy. The patient may require blood transfusions to correct tire anemia. Frequent hematological studies may be required. 

If die antihistamine is given for a serious situation, such as a blood transfusion reaction or a severe drug allergy, the nurse assesses die patient at frequent intervals until the symptoms appear relieved and for about 24 hours after the incident. 

Prevention of clotting in arterial and heart surgery, in blood transfusions and dialysis procedures, and in blood samples for laboratory purposes ... 

If administration of this drug is necessary, the nurse monitors the patient s blood pressure and pulse rate every 15 to 30 minutes for 2 hours or more after administration of the heparin antagonist. The nurse immediately reports to the primary health care provider any sudden decrease in blood pressure or increase in the pulse rate The nurse observes the patient for new evidence of bleeding until blood coagulation tests are within normal limits. To replace blood loss, the primary health care provider may order blood transfusions or fresh frozen plasma... 

Anemia occurs as the result of a decreased production of red blood cells in the bone marrow and is characterized by fatigue, dizziness, shortness of breath, and palpitations. On occasion, the administration of blood transfusions may be necessary to correct the anemia... 

Smit Sibinga, C. Th., Das, P.C., Meryman, N.T. (1990). Cryopreservation and Low Temperature Biology in Blood Transfusion. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands. 

Walton, Michael T. and Phyllis J. Walton, Witches, Jews and Spagyrists Blood Remedies and Blood Transfusions in the Sixteenth Century, Cauda Paoonis, 15, no. 1 (1996) 12-15. 

Individual ability to tolerate radiation damage varies, so a statistical variation exists in the relationship between dose level and health effects. Also, there are effective treatments, such as blood transfusions, for some radiation effects. The statistical patterns of human response to radiation are summarized in Table 22-5. Doses of over 600 rem are almost always fatal. 

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) Spherical particles 40 nm in diameter consisting of an inner core surrounded by an adherent lipid envelope The virus is spread through blood transfusions and blood products. Induces a hepatitis which is usually milder than that caused by HBV... 

Degenerative retinal damage multiple blood transfusions... 

Blood transfusions may be indicated with methemoglobin levels >50% and evidence of tissue hypoxia... 

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