As a tool for forensic applications

Forensic laboratories are interested in identifying and assessing trace impurities in bulk pharmaceutical products with the idea of using the impurity profile as a fingerprint of the manufacturer. Of course, RS can be an important aid in this process. It has been demonstrated, for instance, that static headspace GS coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) was able to detect and identify volatile impurities, making possible the characterization of illicit heroin or cocaine samples. 

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Technically, testing of hair for drugs is no more difficult or challenging than testing in many other "alternative" matrices (for example, liver, bone, etc.). In fact, the application of analytical methods and instrumental approaches are in most cases quite similar, regardless of the initial matrix. At present, hair analysis is routinely used as a tool for detection of drug use in forensic science, traffic medicine, occupational medicine, and clinical toxicology. 

As PA-FTIR requires minimal or no sample preparation, it is a well-suited method for nondestructive analysis of fibres. PA-FTIR has been used for single fibre sampling (forensic application) and as a tool for identifying surface coatings on fibres [485]. The PAS method allows investigation of the surface treatment of wool fibres [486]. PA-FTIR polarised light measurements can be used to study molecular orientation in drawn fibres and films. 

In this chapter, we delve into the instrumental tools, techniques, and procedures utilized in forensic chemistry. The chapter is best thought of as akin to a ClijfsNotes of that enormous topic, a supplement to and summary of the many fine works listed in the "References" and "Further Reading" sections at the end of the chapter. For those who have recently taken an instrumental analysis course, much will be review for those who have not, enough information is provided to imderstand how and why the instruments are used and to understand information presented in the chapters that follow. Mass spectrometry and infrared spectrometry often are covered in an organic chemistry course, at least to the level of detail assumed here. The depth and breadth of each treatment corresponds to how widespread its application is in forensic chemistry. For example, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was introduced in the mid 198(te and is routinely used in many materials, environmental, and research laboratories. However, it is rarely applied to forensic chemistry and hence is omitted here. Conversely, microscopy is a staple of forensic science and is not frequently used in other analytical settings. The presentation of each method is necessarily concise and is meant to provide information requisite to an understanding of later topics it is not meant as a replacement for an instrumental anal)reis course. 

In an applied role, PCR is invaluable as a fingerprinting device in forensic applications (Budowle et al., 1994), as a diagnostic tool of diseases (Cariolou et al., 1993), and for identifying organisms from viruses (Ali Jameel, 1993) to whales (Baker Palumbi, 1994). Volumes have already been devoted to this powerful technique, despite its being only 10 years old. 

The use of a direct combined (or polyphasic) approach can create highly specific soil fingerprints from normal constituents. This, in addition to the application of appropriate statistical analysis, would make soil analysis a more effective tool for routine forensic work, thus considerably extending its applicability. Indeed, combinations of different data each with its own discriminatory potential may result in probabilities of association or disassociation that even surpass those of techniques such as human DNA. Initial work using a canonical variate analysis has shown discrimination between soil types can be improved by including more analytical data. Figure 11.11 illustrates... 

The power of laser ablation can be extended as a popular method for trace and bulk analysis in conjunction with ICP-OES and is an invaluable tool in the study of surface behaviour particularly where sensitive surfaces are important. The common area for surface knowledge is in environment, medicines, adhesives, powders, slurries, oil-based samples and liquids. It finds application in the analysis of metallurgical samples, non-conductive polymers, ceramic materials, surface mapping, elemental migration, depth profiling, thin film coatings, biological and clinical specimens, forensic, paint chips, inks, bullets, fabrics, etc. 

Since the beginning of modern science, coal petrology has served as a powerful tool for the characterization of coals for both geological and indnstrial applications. As was mentioned earlier, the applications of coal petrology are wide-ranging. However, the applications of this science may sometimes be observed in apparently unrelated fields such as archaeological studies, materials science, and forensic geology. 

DNA analysis involves the use of scientihc tools to access the information found in DNA to identify its source, whether some infectious agent, another organism of interest, or a particular individual, such as in forensic applications. Medical applications of this technology include the search for mutations associated with genetic disorders and the design of probes that are able to diagnose these disorders in a timely fashion. 

Moller, M.R., Fey, P., and Wennig, R. (1993) Simultaneous determination of drugs of abuse (opiates, cocaine and amphetamine) in human hair by GC-MS and its application to the methadon treatment program, in Special Issue Hair Analysis as a Diagnostic Tool for Drugs of Abuse Investigation, Forensic Science International, vol. 63 (ed P. Saukko), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 185-206. 

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