Artificial Products

This view was supported by the observation that choline on treatment with nitric acid yielded a product having a pharmacological action similar to that of muscarine as known up to that time. Comparison of the natural and artificial products by Bohm showed that the former was much more active than the latter and that its action was antagonised by atropine, whilst the artificial muscarine had a curare-like action on the atropinised frog. Later, Nothnagel investigated the action of... 

Methyl Salicylate.—This ester is practically identical with oil of winter-green or oil of sweet birch, both of which contain about 99 per cent, of the ester. It is also present in numerous other plants, and its artificial production is carried out on a very large scale. The artificial ester is quite suitable for replacing the natural oil, and is used to a very large extent for flavouring tooth powders, pastes, and washes, being exceedingly popular in America. The ester has the constitution... 

Analysis shows that this oil consists of several ketones of the groups CuH qO of higher boiling-points and greater density than those of ionone. These ketones are optically active, and both their existence and their artificial production have been hitherto unknown. 

In his study of a related issue involving the artificial products of both artists and alchemists, Newman has analysed the medieval and Renaissance scholastic debate concerning the rightful role of art vis-a-vis nature. This had been defined by Aristotle [Physics II I I92b8-I4).= ... 

Perkin WH (1868) Artificial production of coumarin and formation of its homologues. J Chem... 

Diamond is transformed into graphite when heated by a powerful electric current between carbon poles, and both diamond and graphite can be indirectly converted into charcoal. The artificial production of the diamond, however, is a more difiticult process but the late Professor Moissan succeeded in effecting it, so far as very small diamonds are... 

After Dalton, the word synthesis was not usually used yet in chemical parlance. Berzelius (1779-1848), Dumas (1800-1884) and even Wohler (1800-1882) refer to the classical synthesis of urea -achieved in 1828 by Wohler himself-as an artificial production or formation of an organic compound. Only after the publications by Kolbe (1818-1884), Frankland (1825-1899) and Bertholet (1827-1907) was the word synthesis normally used and became familiar to chemists. 

There is little history to report, except so far, its artificial production has not been reported. It is expected to be an extension of the halogens and will be located at the bottom of group 17(VIIA). 

The " Ar/ Ar dating method is based on the artificial production of Ar by neutron irradiation of K-bearing samples in nuclear reactors ... 

He then went on to show that iron often fails to show itself even where it is actually present that the soil contains a great deal of it, and that its ascent in plants takes place very easily. One can scarcely extract it from any substance in which one could not correctly surmise that it was already present and conjecture will always be opposed to the artificial production of a metal and in favor of its pre-existence. ... 

Lemery concluded that one does not produce iron merely by making it sensitive to the influence of the magnet. . . and [that] the time for the pleasant hope of the artificial production of tile metals has not arrived (193). 

Reward of twenty pounds for the artificial production of palladium, Nichol-... 

Since the supply of the natural salt was insufficient to meet the demand for it, it was soon superseded by an artificial product. Gilles-Egide-Frangois Boulduc stated in 1731 that if all this salt on the market came from the Epsom well, the latter must consist entirely of salt without any water (116). 

Tincal (Borax). Even in the eighteenth century, borax was believed to be an artificial production (59, 60). Caspar Neumann (1683-1737) said that Borax is a saline substance, of which neither the origin nor the component parts are as yet known. It comes from the East-Indies in little crystalline masses.. . . The refining of Borax was formerly practised only at Venice, and hence the refined Borax was called Venetian but the Dutch are now the only masters of this manufacture. Serapio calls the rough Borax as it comes from the Indies Tincar and the dealers in this commodity still distinguish it by the name Tincar or Tincal, never calling it Borax till it is refined (95). 

This salt was discovered by J. R. Glauber 1 in 1659 he prepared it by the action of nitric acid on volatile alkali—ammonium carbonate—and called it nitrum jlammans. Ammonium nitrate is an artificial product, its occurrence in nature is quite exceptional. Ammonium nitrate, sulphate, and carbonate occur in small quantities in the atm. from which they are carried by rain and snow to the surface waters of the earth. A. Bobierre 2 measured the amount, month by month, in the air of Nantes R. A. Smith determined the amount in the air of towns, etc., in Great Britain C. Ochsenius, in the air of Paris and A. Levy, and F. Fischer,... 

A misapprehension seems to have been entertained, that, taking advantage of the resemblance, the exotie would be adulterated with the artificial product Fortunately this is impracticable, as the smell and tasto of potato oil, which always accompany artificial gum, are sufficient to betray its presence aiid thus, if the purchaser suspects fraud, the most ready means for its detection are in his possession, and may be at once applied. 

Chinese Vermilion, which is so rich in color as to command five or six times the price of the European product, appears to be prepared in the ordinary way, leaving nothing to account for the superior brilliancy of shade except the sunnier climate. By careful selection, the finest portions arc collected, and, if necessary, ground and washed several times. In making the artificial product, one part of sulphur and four of mercury are introduced into an earthen pot, to which an iron cover is luted and bound with wire the pot with its contents is then placed in a fire of dried camel s dung. After sublimation, the cover is removed aud the pot broken, and the purest of the sublimate picked out from, the less-colored product, ground very fine, and the powder sifted into a large vessel of watar. When the red product lias subsided, the supernatant... 

IVom that period a constant race was kept up between soap-making and the artificial production of soda. Every improvement in Leblanc s system was followed by an extension of the soap trade and it is a curious fact, that tho seaport of Liverpool exports annually more soap at present, than did all tire ports of Great Britain previous to the conversion by Mr, Muspratt, on tho large scale, of chloride of sodium into crude carbonate of soda. The manufacture of soap has, on the other hand, been a powerful stimulus to the preparation of soda, and of the important secondary product—chloroxide of calcium, or bleaching powder —two substances which are so intimately allied with almost all branches of chemical manufactures. Thus soap occupies one of the most important pages in tho, history of applied chemistry. The increase ta the consumption of this article has led, moreover, to the dis-... 

It was Priestley who, in 1772, proposed to impregnate water direct with carbonic acid, and In 1774 prescriptions for the artificial production of Belters and I yrmont waters, founded on an accurate analysis of the same, were published by Bergmann. 

Radionuclides constitute a special kind of environmental pollution. Their artificial production rate has increased exponentially since the development of the first nuclear reactor. They have brought us blessings in the form of power, of new research tools, and of new knowledge they have brought us problems in the form of the release of hazardous radionuclides and of the management of large quantities of radioactive waste. 

James Cutbush, acting professor of chemistry and mineralogy at West Point, in his posthumous "System of Pyrotechny, 1825, tells11 of the detonation of various chlorate mixtures and of their use for the artificial production of fire. Besides the use of nitre in pyrotechnical compositions, as it forms an essential part of all... 

Artificial products, obtained by addition of aromatic substances to commercial alcohol, may however be recognised, as they contain little or no hydrocyanic acid and are rich in benzaldehyde. Kirschwasser and similar spirits are prepared, although rarely, from alcohol and bitter almond or cherry laurel water and in such cases hydrocyanic acid is present. Artificial products are generally prepared from rectified alcohol and thus have a low coefficient of impurity and contain only very small amounts of higher alcohols. 

Besides these genuine, natural turpentines, artificial products (Turpentine substitutes, Artificial turpentines) are also sold, these having as their basis, colophony, resin oils, fatty oils, oil of turpentine, pine oil, or resin spirit. Such products have the external appearance of ordinary or larch turpentine, but their odour never possesses the peculiar balsam-like quality characteristic of the latter. 

Turpentine is usually analysed with a view to the determination of its commercial value with reference to its purity or its yield of oil, or to estba-lish the quality, or to ascertain if it is an artificial product. 

Use of Model Systems. From time to time it may be desirable to utilize a model or artificial citrus juice system as an aid in studying certain flavor attributes. A big advantage, of course, is the resultant standard "juice" being completely reproducible at any time. However, the big disadvantage is that no matter how well a citrus product is simulated in a model juice system, many taste panelists apparently cannot feel really comfortable when evaluating a purely artificial product. 

It was Pasteur, in the middle of the 19th century, who first recognized the breaking of chiral symmetry in life. By crystallizing optically inactive sodium anmonium racemates, he separated two enantiomers of sodium ammonium tartrates, with opposite optical activities, by means of their asymmetric crystalline shapes [2], Since the activity was observed even in solution, it was concluded that optical activity is due to the molecular asymmetry or chirality, not due to the crystalline symmetry. Because two enantiomers with different chiralities are identical in every chemical and physical property except for optical activity, in 1860 Pasteur stated that artificial products have no molecular asymmetry and continued that the molecular asymmetry of natural organic products establishes the only well-marked line of demarcation that can at present be drawn between the chemistry of dead matter and the chemistry... 

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