Anthropogenic marker compounds

In addition to the above mentioned pollutants, which are characterized by harmful ecotoxicological or toxicological effects, further anthropogenic contaminants were analysed frequently, the so-called anthropogenic markers. An impressive review on the evaluation and use of anthropogenic marker compounds has been published recently by Takada and Eganhouse (1998). 

Anthropogenic marker compounds are both natural substances derived from human feces or urine and xenobiotics. Apart from information on the emission sources they also provide information on transport pathways and fate of anthropogenic contaminants. In case of undisturbed sedimentation... 

Fig. 8 Origin and transformation pathway of the anthropogenic marker compound urobilin, partially adapted from Takada and Eganhouse (1998).

Tab. 1 Well known anthropogenic marker compounds, their sources and occurrence (adapted from Takada and Eganhouse 1998)...

The GC/MS non-target screening analyses revealed numerous compounds of which selected ones are subsequently presented and discussed in the following mainly with respect to their source specifity and their spatial distribution within the riverine system. Concentrations of anthropogenic marker compounds as well as of still unnoticed contaminants will effectively characterize anthropogenic emissions and provide a more detailed view on the pollution of the Lippe river. All quantitative data are shown in Tab. 2 a-d. 

The main focus of this study was to identify organic substances in Havel and Spree river sediments that could trace anthropogenic emissions of specific sources within the system. Therefore, selected contaminants with respect to their source specificity and to their environmental stability are discussed in order to characterize new potential anthropogenic marker compounds. 

Tab. 4 Potential anthropogenic marker compounds identified in sediment samples of the Havel / Spree rivers. Quantitative data are given in ng/g dry matter.

The last anthropogenic marker compound analysed in this study was tributylphosphate (TBP). TBP enters the aquatic environment by municipal as well as industrial sewage effluents. The concentration trend illustrated... 

Local assessment of the mass balance of the most critical PhCs (the most frequently administered antibiotics, analgesics/anti-inflammatories and the psychiatric dmg carbamazepine, considered an anthropogenic marker in wastewaters [121]) also provides useful information about the PhC contribution of the hospital effluent with respect to that of the catchment area. The extent of this contribution will differ between compound, but Beier et al. [92], in particular, reported that it can reach as high as 94% for some antibiotics (ciprofloxacin), although Kummerer [53], on the other hand, stated that only up to 25% of the antibiotics administered in Germany are used in hospitals. 

A huge proportion of the presented investigations used organic marker compounds in order to differentiate the various anthropogenic emissions to the river and groundwater systems. The studies are not restricted to the application of established marker compounds, but numerous new marker substances were introduced and evaluated. 

Chapter 2 contains two studies related to groundwater contamination as a result of two different anthropogenic activities. The first study (chapter 2.1) focuses on emissions derived from a leaking waste deposit landfill. The chemical characterisation as well as the identification of specific contaminants are main objectives. Further on, using a set of specific waste deposit derived marker compounds the spatial distribution as well as a time trend was characterised in order to assess the risk of the waste deposit derived effluents. 

In contrast to the municipal marker compounds industrial ones are often discharged from point sources and are spatially restricted. In the present study various anthropogenic markers were identified representing different industrial emission sources. 

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were detected as ubiquitous contaminations. Since PCBs are used in a wide field of applications they are not suitable as specific anthropogenic markers. In contrast, the PCB substituents tetrachlorobenzyltoluenes (TCBT) [Structure 6 Appendix] can serve as marker compounds of industrial emissions because of their higher specifity due to their limited technical applications. In Europe... 

The spatial distribution of the anthropogenic markers derived from each industrial branch was reproducible through all sampling campaigns. However, no preferred seasonal trends according to the distribution patterns of each compound were observed. The pollution of the upper reaches was on average much smaller than in the downstream area. 

To our knowledge no further information about the environmental persistence and the environmental fate for 4-methoxycinnamic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester, benzyl benzoate, benzophenone, dibenzyl ether and thymol are available. Nevertheless, due to their source specificity, these compounds are appropriate candidates for the application as anthropogenic markers in the case of sufficient persistence. 

In addition numerous compounds were detected which may serve as potential anthropogenic markers with respect to their source specifity and environmental persistence. Plasticizers (alkylsulfonic acid aryl esters, tributyl and tricresyl phosphates), synthetic fragrances (galaxolide, tonalide, 4-oxoisophorone) and additives of personal care products (4-methoxycinnamic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester, benzyl benzoate, dibenzyl ether, benzophenone) occurred due to sewage treatment plant effluents and reflect therefore an anthropogenic contamination of the particulate riverine matter, even in marine systems. 

However, anthropogenic emissions can also be traced to other sources than mining. This can be reflected in more detail by specific organic marker compounds. Most of these compounds have entered the list of priority pollutants due to their biological and chemical persistence (Takada and Eganhouse, 1998). This reveals not only their ecological and ecotoxicological relevance but characterizes them as stable marker substances. 

Additionally, sediment samples of the Lippe river (Germany) were investigated by non-target screening analyses. Within the present study so far unknown or rarely detected contaminants as well as anthropogenic molecular marker compounds were selected for quantification. The obtained qualitative and quantitative analytical results were interpreted in order to characterize the anthropogenic contamination of the particulate... 

Ricking M, Heim S, Schwarzbauer J (2004) Geochronology and specific anthropogenic markers in a sediment core from the Teltow Canal in Berlin, Germany. Organohalogen compounds 66, 1455-1462. 

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