Results of the Analysis

The analysis of an activation analysis spectrum is based on the procedures described in Sec. 12.7.3. It is performed either by the MCA itself, if that instrument has such capability, or by a digital computer. Several computer codes have been written for that purpose.  

Activation analysis may be qualitative or quantitative. In a qualitative measurement, only identification of the element is involved. This is accomplished, as shown in Sec. 12.7.3, from the energies and intensities of the peaks of the spectrum. In a quantitative measurement, on the other hand, in addition to identification, the amount of element in the sample is also determined. To illustrate how the mass is determined and what the errors and sensitivity of the method are, consider the energy spectrum of Fig. 15.1 as an example. 

Assume that the mass of an element in the sample will be determined from the full-energy peak at Using the notation of Sec. 14.4, the mass m is given by (see Eq. 14.22) 

The error in the value of m depends on the errors of the quantities that comprise Eq. 15.4, such as A, e, o- and . In the most general case, the standard derivation o- is 

In practice, certain errors are always negligible when compared to others. The quantities A, A, and a-, are known very accurately for most isotopes. Also, the flux (t and the efficiency e can be determined with a known but small error. The error in the times and can be negligible. Thus, the major contribution to the error of m comes from the error of i.e., the error of the area under the peak. Assuming that a-p is the only important error, the standard error of m is 

Capital costs of SJEs are estimated from the chart in Power (2005). All capital costs are adjusted for inflation using the Chemical Engineering s Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) of 577 for July 2014. Capital costs for absorption/mechanical chillers, LRVP and DVP are based on 

Note that cost savings due to vacuum improvement are from the crude distillation column operation they are in addition to operating cost savings from vacuum system revamp, given by the first two terms in the denominator of Equation (11.26). 

Cost results for all Cases lA to IG in Case Study 1 are summarized in Table 11.2. Operating cost and payback period are calculated for five scenarios. As can be seen in Table 11.2, annual operating cost of a vacuum system is very significant compared with the installed cost, particularly revamp projects where the existing equipment are re-used as much as possible. The majority of the operating cost arises from the first stage, which 

Utilities, costs and payback period for retrofit alternatives 

Reference cost case Considering LLP steam for absorption chiller is zero cost Considering electric power cost is 75% of reference cost Considering electric power cost is 125% of reference cost If MP steam cost is 75% of reference cost due to credit from power generation at steam turbines If MP steam cost is 75% of reference cost and LLP steam to absorption chiller is at zero cost 

After carrying out the design the results are analysed. In the first instance the results of the design (y, y, can be plotted to see if one or a few 

The effects of the different factors on the response are calculated. This is done according to equation (2). 

In equation (2) and in the rest of this chapter n represents the number of runs that are performed at one level of a factor, respectively at (+) or (-) level. The symbol N indicates the number of different experiments specified in a design. For instance, for a 2 design for which each experiment is performed once, N is equal to 8 and n to 4. 

A theoretical example of how to calculate an effect is shown in equation (3) and some practical results can be observed in the tables belonging to the case studies described in Section 3.4.9 (Tables 3.22, 3.24, 3.26, 3.28).  

An effect found with this equation is half the effect found with the formula used in eq. (2). The effect obtained using equation (2) describes the effect that occurs when the factor is changed from one extreme level to the other. The use of equation (2 ) can be justified as an estimation of the effect that occurs when changing a factor from the nominal to an extreme level. However, the conclusions drawn from eq. (2 ) are only valid if a munber of assumptions is frilfrlled (a) the factor is quantitative and not qualitative (b) the nominal level is situated in the middle of the interval between the two extreme levels (c) the response is linear in the interval between the two extreme levels. Since these assumptions are not always frilfrlled the use of equation (2 ) is not recommended. 

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Recognizing this is essential in the design of experiments and analysis of the results. The rapid pace of improvements and iimovation in electronic devices and computers have provided die experimenter with electronic solutions to experimental problems diat in the past could only be solved with custom hardware. 

With better hardware and software, more exact methods can be used for the representation of chemical structures and reactions. More and more quantum mechanical calculations can be utilized for chemoinformatics tasks. The representation of chemical structures will have to correspond more and more to our insight into theoretical chemistry, chemical bonding, and energetics. On the other hand, chemoinformatics methods should be used in theoretical chemistry. Why do we not yet have databases storing the results of quantum mechanical calculations. We are certain that the analysis of the results of quantum mechanical calculations by chemoinformatics methods could vastly increase our chemical insight and knowledge. 

It was estimated from an analysis of the results that the nitrosonium ion was at least ten times more effective than dinitrogen tetroxide this is a lower limit, and the ion is likely to be much more reactive than the latter species. 

In this experiment students synthesize basic copper(ll) carbonate and determine the %w/w Gu by reducing the copper to Gu. A statistical analysis of the results shows that the synthesis does not produce GUGO3, the compound that many predict to be the product (although it does not exist). Results are shown to be consistent with a hemihydrate of malachite, Gu2(0H)2(G03) I/2H2O, or azurite, GU3(0H)2(G03)2. 

To determine the purity of a sample of Na2HP04, a 2.469-g sample is dissolved and diluted to volume in a 100-mL volumetric flask. Analysis of the resulting solution gives an absorbance of 0.135. What is the purity of the Na2HP04 ... 

A 0.5113-g sample of dry dog food was ashed to remove organic materials, and the residue dissolved in a small amount of HCl and diluted to volume in a 50-mL volumetric flask. Analysis of the resulting solution gave a fluorescent emission intensity of 5.72. Determine the parts per million of Fe in the sample of dog food. 

Table 4. Gas Chromatographic Analysis of the Results of Cracking Polymer Mixtures Using a Conrad Unit ...

Bursting tests have been carried out on neatly a hundred thick-walled cylinders made of carbon, low alloy, and stainless steels, together with some nonferrous materials. The diameter ratio of the cylinders varied from 1.75 to 5.86, and some tests were carried out at 660°C. An analysis of the results (19) showed that 90% of the cylinders burst within 15% of the value given by equation 17. 

Complete basic hydrolysis, followed by the quantitative measurement of hydrogen formed, can be used to determine the number of Si—H and Si—Si bonds present in a particular compound. One molecule of H2 is Hberated for each Si—H and Si—Si bond present. The total siUcon content can be obtained from analysis of the resulting siUcate solution. 

What statistical techniques are required for the analysis of the resulting data, and can these tools be rapidly brought to bear after the experiment has been conducted ... 

In all antiseptic testing, it is recognized that skin and mucous membranes to which products ate appHed cannot be disinfected or sterilized but it is possible to significantly reduce the population of transient and resident pathogenic bacterial flora. AH in vivo test methods requite a deterrnination of the bacteria on the skin before and after treatment. Because of the normal variation in bacterial population of the skin of different people, a number of people must be tested in order to make a statistical analysis of the results. Different parts of the body are used for different tests. In aH of the tests the details of the protocol ate extremely important and must be strictly adhered to in order to obtain reproducible results. 

An important issue, the significance of which is sometime underestimated, is the analysis of the resulting molecular dynamics trajectories. Clearly, the value of any computer simulation lies in the quality of the information extracted from it. In fact, it is good practice to plan the analysis procedure before starting the simulation, as the goals of the analysis will often detennine the character of the simulation to be performed. 

I o document by video or photography what is being visualized is oiteri very useful. This makes it possible to analyze more carefully what has been documented. It is not possible to see all details the first time and the omt analysis of the results by all involved persons w/ill many times be valiiai)ie. 

Every chromatographic investigation begins with the preparation of the sample and the chromatographic system. This is followed by the crux of the separation process (development of the chromatogram) which is in turn followed by the visualization of the separated substances and the preservation of the chromatogram and finally by the analysis of the results. 

Analysis of the results you gather should include two dimensions facility-specific and companywide. As you review each facility s data, you will be gauging its performance against specific measures such as schedule and resource requirements. Companywide, the team should be looking not only for these measurements against the overall plan, but also for trends and common findings that may indicate systemic problems. 

Eyi. This is obviously not the case, and analysis of the results shows that the HF wavefunction describes the following process, for large R ... 

Nonyl aldehyde (32.66 g, 0.23 mol) and furan (200 mL, 187.2 g, 2.75 mol) were mixed in a 250-mL photolysis flask equipped with a quartz immersion well containing a Vycor filter and a 450-W Hanovia Lamp. The system was kept at -20° C with an isopropyl alcohol bath cooled by a Cryocool Immersion Cooler (CClOO). Nitrogen was bubbled throughout the duration of the reaction, and the solution was stirred vigorously. Additional furan (150 mL, 140.4 g, 2.06 mol) was added during the course of the reaction. TLC analysis indicated completion of the reaction after 20 h. After evaporation of excess furan and NMR analysis of the resultant oil (48.70 g, ca. 100%) indicated the desired photoadduct had been formed, without contamination from unreacted nonyl aldehyde. 

Present in the next sections are the LDA results for equilibrium structure, pressure-induced transitions and electronic properties of various polymorphs, and the comparative analysis of the results for rutile and anatase that were obtained using LDA and GGA forms of the exchange-correlation potential. 

Regression analysis of the results gave Eqs. 11 and 12 fora- and P-cyclodextrin systems respectively. 

Statistical figures obtained from a set of results are of limited value by themselves. Analysis of the results can be considered in two main categories (a) the reliability of the results and (b) comparison of the results with the true value or with other sets of data (Section 4.12). 

Due to the differences in the values relative to any one system, conclusions cannot easily be drawn from the activation parameters listed in Table 3. However, an analysis of the results relative to 1,2-ethanediol, 2,2-dimethyl-l,3-propanediol, 1,5-pentanediol, 1,10-decanediol and diethylene glycol shows that a slight difference can be observed between aromatic and aliphatic acids the activations enthalpies and entropies are in the ranges 70, 100 kJ mol"1 and -SO, -130 J K"1 mol-1 for aromatic acids, and in the ranges 50, 70 kJ mol"1 and -200, -100 J K"1 mol-1 for the aliphatic acids. 

From an analysis of the results, the values of k and k. were determined as 13 x 10-3 and 132 x 10-3 respectively, which implies, not unreasonably, that NO+ is a more reactive electrophile than N204 the nitrosation rate was also relatively independent of the water concentration. 

In presence of molecular motion the NMR line shape will change. A particularly simple situation arises, if the motion is rapid on timescale defined by the inverse width of the spectrum in absence of motion 6 1. In this fast exchange limit, which in 2H NMR is reached for correlation times tc < 1CT7 s, the motion leads to a partially averaged quadrupole coupling and valuable information about the type of motion can directly be obtained from analysis of the resulting line shapes. The NMR frequency is then given by... 

The high-conversion bromine product quality tests at 300°C and 335°C gave greater than 99 % HBr conversion. Analysis of the resulting bromine showed no detectable chlorine. 

Besides, the statistical analysis of the results obtained confirmed that the xylan samples did not present a significant effect on the cell viability and cell proliferation rate when in direct contact with HeLa cells at the concentrations used in this study and compared to the control. 

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