ZEBRA performance

The performance of the ZEBRA battery system is shown in Table 3 ... 

The properties of the molten electrolyte sodium aluminum chloride influence the performance and the behavior of the ZEBRA cell. 

Millam J.R., C.B. Craig-Veit, A.E. Quaglino, A.L. Erichsen, T.R. Eamula, and D.M. Fry (2001). Post-hatch oral estrogen exposure impairs adult reproductive performance of zebra flnch in a sex-specific manner. Hormones and Behavior 40 542-549. 

Fig. 4.25 Ragone plot comparing the internal combustion engine with the ZEBRA battery and fuel cells (very approximate). [The plot was introduced for comparing batteries (standardized to a weight of 300 kg) to include the performances of engines and fuel cells in a meaningful way their masses, together with the fuel carried, should be standardized to 300 kg.].

Strong contenders for automotive power are the sodium/sulphur and sodium/ nickel chloride batteries, the latter known as the ZEBRA cell. ZEBRA was originally (c. 1979) an acronym devised for commercial security reasons but now it stands for the very apt Zero Emissions Batteries Research Activity . Several European car manufacturers including BMW and Mercedes have incorporated the ZEBRA cell into prototype cars, vans and buses. The performance of the battery far outstrips that of the lead/acid counterpart, as is evident from Fig. 

The last type of nickel based battery here considered is the so-called sodium-nickel chloride or Zebra battery, firstly developed in 80s in Pretoria, South Africa (Zebra stands for ZEolite Battery Research Africa). The anode is made of liquid sodium, the electrolyte is based on sodium ion conducting -alumina and the cathode is constituted by nickel chloride. This is flooded with liquid NaAlCU which acts as a secondary electrolyte, i.e., its function is to enhance the transport of sodium ions from the solid nickel chloride to and from the alumina electrolyte [19]. They work at high temperature (157°C is the temperature necessary to have sodium in its molten state, but the better performance is obtained in the range 250-350°C) and operate with the following discharge semi- reactions at the anode ... 

Zebra fish (B. reho) can be used for its small size, egg-laying performance, and short life cycle of approximately 75 days to monitor chronic toxicity and bioaccumtnulation (Lillie ct a/., 1979). 

The Zebra Desalt Spin Columns that come with the DyLight Labeling Kits remove free dye. These columns contain a desalting resin and molecular weight cutoff. They perform well in desalting small sample volumes, providing excellent protein recovery and > 95% retention of small molecules and salts (<7 kDa). 

The prospects of development of sodium ion batteries are very uncertain. The developers of such batteries remember the numerous efforts directed at the commercialization of batteries with a sodium negative electrode and ceramic electrolyte of P-alumina. Intensive development of batteries with the system of sodium-sulfur has been carried out since 1966 (for almost half a century ) and development of batteries with the system of sodium-nickel chloride (ZEBRA batteries) has been performed since 1978. It was assumed that these high-temperature batteries would form a basis for electric transport, but these systems are still referred to in the future tense. 

Battery safety is so important for mobile and vehicle apphcations. Especially for vehicles, on the road, accident likely becomes heavy, and the crash accident should not bring more danger by release of the energy stored in the cells. And various tests are usually conducted. In ZEBRA battery case, test results were reported. Crash of an operative battery against a pole with 50 km/h, overcharge test, overdischarge test, short circuit test, vibration test, external fire test, and submersion of the battery in water have been specified and performed [6]. The ZEBRA battery did pass all these tests owing to its four-barrier safety concept [7, 8] chemical aspects, cell case, thermal structure, and battery controller. 

Reactor physics PNC developed a nuclear design analyds method which consists of nuclear data and reactor constants, calculation models, computer codes and methods for interpolation and extrapolation (Bondarenko-type 26 group constants, computer codes for 2D or 3D diffusion calculations, etc.). In addition, PNC performed a fiill size mockup test (the MOZART project) in the ZEBRA t critical test fa< ty at Winfidth in the UK, and a partial mockup test at the FCA (JAERI) in Japan, to help understand the nuclear characteristics of the Monju core and confirm the validity and accuracy of the nuclear dedgn. 

Experimental Validation. The following types of measurement have been used to evaluate the accuracy of Doppler effect calculations (a) the South-west Experimental Fast Oxide Reactor (SEFOR) was built and operated specifically to measure Doppler effects (or fast-acting fuel reactivity feedback effects with expansion effects minimised) (b) the dependence of reactivity on temperature in operating power reactors, such as PHENDC and SUPER-PHENDC (fi-om the non-linearity of the temperature coefficient, for example) (c) the ZEBRA 5 Doppler Loop experiments, in which a test zone was heated. Experiments were performed with and without sodium present (d) the temperature dependence of the reactivity worths of small samples oscillated at the centre of critical assemblies (e) the differences in reaction rates in samples irradiated at different temperatures and (f) temperature dependent thick sample transmission and self-indication measurements, which are usually analj ed together with the differential nuclear data to provide average resonance parameter data. The uncertainties in extrapolating fi-om these comparisons to the conditions in an operating power reactor must also be taken into account. 

FIGURE 40.18 Two sodium-beta batteries foUowing safety/abuse testing that was performed while the batteries were charged and at operating temperature (a) an SPL HP sodium/sulfur battery dropped onto a steel pole, and (b) a Zebra battery after a steel beam was pushed through its mid-section (Photograph (b) is courtesy of MES-DEA SA). 

The latest ZEBRA batteries contain the cells that have incorporated changes to improve dramatically the battery power and energy (refer to Sec. 4.3.3)." - The physical and performance specifications for a modern battery design are listed in Table 40.8 and a corresponding picture is shown in Fig. AQ.llb. The ZEBRA batteries now meet or exceed all of the mid-term EV requirements of the three major U.S. automakers (specified through the USABC). 

---