Vitamin units

Vitamin Unit (Per Day) (Per Day) Most Abundant Food Source Intake (g) Vitamin Intake Males Adult females... 

EJ Benjamin, GC Visor. Cardiotonic phosphodiesterase inhibitors complexed with water soluble vitamins. United States Patent 4,837,239, June 6, 1989. 

The term vitamin K2 was applied to 2-methyl-3-difarnesyl-l,4-naphthoquinone, m.p. 54 C, isolated from putrefied fish meal. It now includes a group of related natural compounds ( menaquinones ), differing in the number of isoprene units in the side chain and in their degree of unsaturation. These quinones also appear to be involved in the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. 

Firefly lucifenn is an example of an azole that contains a benzene ring fused to the five membered ring Such structures are fairly common Another example is benzimidazole present as a structural unit m vitamin B12 Some compounds related to benzimidazole include purine and its ammo substituted derivative adenine one of the so called het erocychc bases found m DNA and RNA (Chapter 28)... 

A steroid very closely related structurally to cholesterol is its 7 dehydro derivative 7 Dehydrocholesterol is formed by enzymatic oxidation of cholesterol and has a conju gated diene unit m its B ring 7 Dehydrocholesterol is present m the tissues of the skin where it is transformed to vitamin D3 by a sunlight induced photochemical reaction... 

Requirements of poultry for vitamin D are expressed ia iatematioaal chick units (ICU) which are based on the activity of vitamin in chick bioassays. ... 

Zeagen (Coors) United States vitamins and pigments... 

Fine chemical companies are generally either small and privately held or divisions of larger companies, such as Eastman Fine Chemicals (United States) and Lonza (Switzerland). Examples of large public fife science companies, which market fine chemicals as a subsidiary activity to their production for captive use, are Hoffmann-La Roche, Sandoz, and Boehringer Ingelheim, which produce and market bulk vitamins and liquid crystal intermediates, dyestuff intermediates, and bulk active ingredients, respectively. Table 3 fists some representative companies having an important fine chemical business. 

The enrichment program followed in the United States is (/) the enrichment of flour, bread, and degerminated and white rice using thiamin [59-43-8] C 2H y N O S, riboflavin [83-88-5] C2yH2QN4Na02P, niacin [59-67-6] CgH N02, and iron [7439-89-6]-, (2) the retention or restoration of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron in processed food cereals (J) the addition of vitamin D [67-97-0] to milk, fluid skimmed milk, and nonfat dry milk (4) the addition of vitamin A [68-26-8], C2qH2qO, to margarine, fluid skimmed milk, and nonfat dry milk (5) the addition of iodine [7553-56-2] to table salt and (6) the addition of fluoride [16984-48-8] to areas in which the water supply has a low fluoride content (74). 

Epidemiologic studies in Japan indicate an increased risk of stomach cancer owing to consumption of broiled fish and meats (116). In the United States, stomach cancer incidence has steadily declined since the 1940s, whereas consumption of broiled food has increased (108). In addition, the average human intake of PAHs is only 0.002 of that required to produce cancer in half of animals fed. Test results are often contradictory (117) and many components of food, such as vitamin A, unsaturated fatty acids, thiols, nitrites, and even saUva itself, tend to inhibit the mutagenic activity of PAHs (118—120). Therefore, the significance of PAHs in the human diet remains unknown (121,109). 

The isoprene unit exists extensively in nature. It is found in terpenes, camphors, diterpenes (eg, abietic acid), vitamins A and K, chlorophyll, and other compounds isolated from animal and plant materials. The correct stmctural formula for isoprene was first proposed in 1884 (7). 

In 1956 selenium was identified (123) as an essential micronutrient iu nutrition. In conjunction with vitamin E, selenium is effective iu the prevention of muscular dystrophy iu animals. Sodium selenite is adrninistered to prevent exudative diathesis iu chicks, a condition iu which fluid leaks out of the tissues white muscle disease iu sheep and infertility iu ewes (see Eeed ADDITIVES). Selenium lessens the iacidence of pneumonia iu lambs and of premature, weak, and stillborn calves controls hepatosis dietetica iu pigs and decreases muscular inflammation iu horses. White muscle disease, widespread iu sheep and cattle of the selenium-deficient areas of New Zealand and the United States, is insignificant iu high selenium soil areas. The supplementation of animal feeds with selenium was approved by the U.S. EDA iu 1974 (see Eeed additives). Much of selenium s metaboHc activity results from its involvement iu the selenoproteia enzyme, glutathione peroxidase. 

The Sugars Task Force s Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs recommended a daily consumption of sugars at 10% of total calories, which approximates current (11%) daily intake levels in the United States. At this level, sucrose does contribute to the development of dental caries however, no firm evidence exists that it causes dietary imbalances or deficiencies of vitamins (qv), minerals, or trace nutrients (62). 

The 1995 Canadian and United States sugar alcohol (polyol) production is shown in Table 2. The market share of each is also given. Liquids comprise 48% crystalline product comprises 39% and mannitol comprises 13% of the polyol market. An estimate of total U.S. sorbitol capacity for 1995 on a 70% solution basis was 498,000 t. ADM, Decatur, lU., produced 68,200 t Ethichem, Easton, Pa., 13,600 t Lon2a, Mapleton, lU., 45,400 t Roquette America, Gurnee, lU., 68,200 t and SPI Polyols, New Castle, Del., 75,000 t (204). Hoffman-LaRoche, which produces sorbitol for captive usage in the manufacture of Vitamin C (see Vitamins), produced about 27,300 t in 1995. 

The production of a- and P-ionone ia the United States ia 1993 was about 120 t at an average price of 26.48/kg (67). a-Ionone is more valuable than P-ionone ia perfumery and sells for an average price of 30.41 /kg. P-Ionone is produced ia large volumes and production figures are not available. It is used mainly as an iatermediate for produciag Vitamin A. Production figures for methylionones are not available but they are much larger than the a- and P-ionones used for perfumery. 

The use of vitamins in humans consumes ca 40% of vitamins made worldwide. The majority of the vitamins, particularly in countries outside the United States, are used in animal husbandry. It is well estabUshed (21) that vitamins are critical to animal productivity, especially under confined, rapid growth conditions. Newer information (22) has shown that vitamin E added to catde feed has the additional effect of significantly prolonging beef shelf life in stores. Additional appHcations of vitamins exist. A small but growing market segment involves cosmetics (qv) (23). The use of the chemical properties of the vitamins, particularly as antioxidants (qv) in foods and, more recently, in plastics (vitamin E (24)), has emerged as a growing trend. 

Vitamins are sold for direct appHcation to foods and animal feeds. In addition, they are further processed into nutritional supplements. This last market is particularly significant in the United States. In many other countries, vitamins are regulated as dmgs, leading to a much lower supplement usage. 

L-Ascorbic acid biosynthesis in plants and animals as well as the chemical synthesis starts from D-glucose. The vitamin and its main derivatives, sodium ascorbate, calcium ascorbate, and ascorbyl palmitate, are officially recognized by regulatory agencies and included in compendia such as the United S fates Pharmacopeia/National Formula (USP/NF) and the Food Chemicals Codex (FCC). 

As a result of having two chiral centers, four stereoisomers of ascorbic acid are possible (Table 1) (Fig. 2). Besides L-ascorbic acid (Activity = 1), only D-araboascorbic acid (erythorbic acid (9)) shows vitamin C activity (Activity = 0.025-0.05). The L-ascorbic acid stmcture (1) in solution and the soHd state are almost identical. Ascorbic acid crystallizes in the space group P2 with four molecules in the unit cell. The crystal data are summarized in Table 2. 

In the BASF synthesis, a Wittig reaction between two moles of phosphonium salt (vitamin A intermediate (24)) and C q dialdehyde (48) is the important synthetic step (9,28,29). Thermal isomerization affords all /ra/ j -P-carotene (Fig. 11). In an alternative preparation by Roche, vitamin A process streams can be used and in this scheme, retinol is carefully oxidized to retinal, and a second portion is converted to the C2Q phosphonium salt (49). These two halves are united using standard Wittig chemistry (8) (Fig. 12). 

In the United States Pharmacopeia (USP), vitamin A content is deterrnined by the ratio of the corrected absorbance to the observed absorbance and is... 

Irradiated ergosterol was found not to be as antirachitic in the chick as in the rat, whereas the chick could be protected by direct kradiation. The provitamin in cholesterol was shown not to be ergosterol. Rygh (14) in 1935 found that 1 rat unit of cod Hver oil was 100 times more potent in chicks than 1 rat unit of vitamin D2. Brockmann (15) in 1936, prepared the pure crystalline 3,5-dinitrobenzoate derivative of vitamin D obtained from tuna Hver oil... 

Fish-hver oil, Hver, milk, and eggs are good natural sources of the D vitamin. Most milk sold in the United States is fortified with manufactured vitamin D. Fish oil is the only commercial source of natural vitamin D, and the content of the vitamin varies according to species as well as geographically, ie, Adantic cod contain 100 lU/g where lU (International Unit) = 0.025 /ig of vitamin D, whereas oriental tuna (Percomofpk) contain 45,000 lU/g oil. 

---