Urine marking

The influence of gonadal hormones on prepubertal animals suggests some steroidal sensitivity in adults with regard to F. elicitation. Young male sheep are induced to perform F. in response to exogenous T and to 17-p-estradiol F. in female red deer is also sensitive to T injections (Parrott, 1978 Fletcher, 1978). Sex differences can interact with the hormonal state where social conditions vary. Female cats (intact) display F. to urine marks only in the absence of males testosterone propionate induced F. in spayed females towards estrous females (Verbeme, 1976 Hart and Leedy, 1987), whereas an ovarian hormone (estradiol) failed to elicit F. to males (intact, and sexually inactive), presumably indicative of social inhibition overriding steroid facilitation. 

Bronson F. (1976). Urine marking in mice causes and effects. In Mammalian Olfaction, Reproductive Processes and Behavior (Doty R.L., ed.). Academic Press, New York, pp. 119-143. 

Charles-Dominique R (1977). Urine marking and territoriality in Galago alleni (Lorisoidea, Primates) a field study by radio telemetry. Z Tierpsychol 43, 113-138. 

Hurst J.L. (1987). Function of urine-marking in a free-living population of house mice, Mus domesticus, Anim Behav 35, 1433-1442. 

Hurst J.L. (1989). The complex network of olfactory communication in populations of wild house mice Mus domesticus urine marking and investigation within family groups. Anim Behav 37, 705-725. 

Labov J.B. and Wysocki C.J. (1989). Vomeronasal organ and social factors affect urine marking by male mice. Physiol Behav 45, 443-447. 

Maruniak J., Desjardins C. and Bronson F.A. (1975). Adaptations for urine marking in rodents prepuce length and morphology. J Reprod Fertil 44, 567-570. 

Maruniak J., Wysocki C.J. and Taylor J. (1986). Mediation of male mouse urine marking and aggression by the vomeronasal organ. Physiol Behav 37, 655-657. 

Rozenfeld, F. M. (1987) Urine marking by male bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus Schreber, 1780 - Microtidae) in relation with their social status. Mammalia 51, 476 177. 

Hurst, J.F. (1990) Urine marking in populations of wild house mice Mus domesticus Rutty. III. Communication between the sexes. Anim. Behav. 40, 233-243. 

Mice are able actively to seek or avoid priming pheromones that modulate their ovarian cycle and onset of puberty. Peripubertal female mice avoid the urine odor of adult males, known to accelerate puberty in females, and are more attracted to the odor of grouped adult females. This behavior is particularly effective because the active space of the (almost) non-volatile male pheromone is small, and prolonged exposure is required for the effect to occur (Coppola and O Connell, 1988). Likewise, prepubertal female mice do not urinate near urine marks of adult males, while grouped, estrous, and diestrous adult females do. Such behavior may help young females to avoid exposure to male odors until they reach puberty. This way they would be protected from mating too early, and their eventual reproductive success would be enhanced (Drickamer, 1989a). 

In mice, extirpation of the VNO has many behavioral effects. It reduces aggression in male mice (Bean, 1982 Wysocki etal, 1986), reduces urine marking and aggressive behavior in sexually naive male mice (Maruniak etal, 1986) lowers marking to some extent also in sexually experienced males (Labov and... 

Urban feral cats of both sexes sniff marks of sprayed urine more if the donor is a strange cat (from a different town) and respond least to the urine of a familiar cat. Since one male roams over the territories of several females, it is assumed that male-male competition has selected males that spray mark more and respond more strongly to urine marks (Natoli, 1985). 

In other rodents, subordinate males also smell scent marks quite often and so keep informed on the presence, status and activities of higher-ranking group members. For instance, dominant males of the hispid cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus, urine mark more than subordinates. The social status of the male urine donor affects the response of other males to the odor. The response of a reproductive female to feces of either sex depends on her dominance status (Gregory and Cameron, 1989). 

Urine marking by canids has received much attention. Wolves, Canis lupus, mark by raised-leg urination (RLU), squat urination (SQIJ), defecation, and scratching. In Minnesota s Superior National Forest, wolf packs maintain... 

FIGURE 6.8 Schematic sketch of distribution of raised-leg-urination marks in a 20 km wide territory of a wolf pack. Dots are urine marks, lines are trails. Higher marking density along the periphery creates a bowl-shaped pattern. Six neighboring pack territories are indicated by dots in different colors. (From Peters and Mech, 1975.)... 

FIGURE 6.9 A signature urine mark (left center) on a snow bank made by a coyote. To the right, the animal has defecated, pawed, and partially covered the feces with snow. (Photograph D. Miiller-Schwarze.)... 

Wolf Canis lupus Urine marks RLU Peters and Mech, 1975... 

Coyote Canis latrans Urine marks RLU Bowen, 1978... 

In coyotes, C. latrans, SQTJ by females is associated with acquisition and possession of food, and the denning season (Wells and Bekoff, 1981). Red foxes, Y. vulpes, urine mark a buried food cache at each visit the more depleted it is, the more urine odor has accumulated, amounting to book-keeping (Henry, 1980). Foxes urine mark inedible food remains on repeated visits. This no-food-left signal, in turn, decreases the foxes interest, and they investigate the site very little (Henry, 1980). Here, an animal may chemo-communicate with itself about food. Wolves, C. lupus, also urine mark their food caches (Harrington, 1981). 

The age of a scent mark may provide important information. Male domestic cats sniff fresh urine marks that are 0.5 to 4 hours old more (and perform flehmen more often) than urine that is over 1 day old. The length of examination may be an attempt to identify the donor and the time of emission (de Boer, 1977). 

The odor of ferret, Mustek putorius furo, urine causes male outbred laboratory Mus musculus, to reduce their overmarking of rival urine marks. These mice reduce predation risk at the price of tolerating more intrasexual competition (Roberts etal., 2001). 

Canids such as wolves or dogs who track their prey most likely eavesdrop on intraspecific signals, such as deposits from interdigital glands in cervids and hovids, or urine marks of rodents. 

Asa, C. S., Mech, L. D., and Seal, U. S. (1990). The influence of social and endocrine factors on urine-marking by captive wolves [Canis lupis). Elormones and Behavior 24,497-509. 

Harrington, F. H. (1981). Urine marking and caching behavior in the wolf. Behavior 61, 82-105. 

Henry, J. D. (1980). The urine marking behavior and movement patterns of red foxes Vulpes vulpes) during a breeding and post-breeding period. In Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, vol. 2, ed. D. Miiller-Schwarze and R. M. Silverstein, pp. 11-27. New York Plenum. 

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