United States Military Standards

Examples are EU and/or FDA for a pharmaceutical industry selling products to the European Union and the United States, respectively EPA for environmental issues in the United States, military, hospital, and nuclear standards for these industries. Some standards are voluntary, e.g., standardization/accreditation programs such as ISO. Here the industry has asked for a certification or accreditation according to the standard. There may also be internal standards in any company based on a combination of external standards and internal standards. 

Chapter 10 discussed test methods of interest in cellular plastics and related materials from a general point of view and listed industry, government, British and International (ISO) standards in a number of relevant subject areas. This chapter will list published specifications (139) and test methods (116) used in the United States, in addition to British Standards (28) and ISO International Standards (40). United States industry standards inlcude ASTM Test Methods (116), ASTM Practices, Guides, Definitions, Terminologies and Abbreviations (24), ASTM Specifications (23), SAE-AMS Specifications (25), and Underwriters Laboratories Standards (1). U.S. Government standards covered include Military Specifications (67), Military Standards (S), Federal Standards (2), Military Handbooks (6), and Federal Specifications (24). Most of these standards are undergoing frequent revision and unused standards are constantly being withdrawn. A total of 361 standards are covered. 

Many compounds explode when triggered by a suitable stimulus however, most are either too sensitive or fail to meet cost and production-scale standards, requirements for safety in transportation, and storage stability. Propellants and explosives in large-scale use are based mosdy on a relatively small number of well-proven iagredients. Propellants and explosives for military systems are manufactured ia the United States primarily ia government owned plants where they are also loaded iato munitions. Composite propellants for large rockets are produced mainly by private iadustry, as are small arms propellants for sporting weapons. 

The standard tear-producing agents currently in the US Army inventory for riot control are CS, CS1, CS2, CSX, and CR. The United States considers agent CN (popularly known as mace or tear gas) and its mixtures with various chemicals obsolete for military employment. This chapter includes these materials, however, for complete coverage of compounds with potential for use against US forces. This chapter also presents information regarding CN mixtures as an example of how agent properties can be tailored to the method of dissemination. 

At least six specifications of standards for granulated sugar quality are applicable in the United States. These include CodexSiHmentariuSy Food Chemicals Codex (FCC) (4), US. Pharmacopeia (USP) and National Formulary (NF) (5), National Soft Drink Association (6), National Canners Association, and Military Standard-900 for white sugar. These standards are intended to set limits on various components, including, but not necessarily limited to, polarization, invert or reducing sugar, ash, moisture, color, sulfur dioxide, arsenic, lead, and copper. 

While the finished products sought in different countries are usually quite similar, if not identical, in performance characteristics, somewhat different philosophies exist with respect to control of the manufacturing processes. Thus, in the United States the manufacture of lead azide for military purposes is not so rigorously specified as it is in Britain, and more emphasis is given to satisfactory performance in routine tests as the criterion for an acceptable product. This difference of emphasis, together with the smaller scale of production, have led to a greater standardization in Britain, not only of the processes but also of equipment, and the processes have been "exported" or licensed for use in several countries of Europe and in Asia and Australia. 

Unlike many commercial operations, most pharmaceutical components are special to each and every pharmaceutical company, although fortunately some commonality will occasionally occur. In fact, distinct technical and commercial advantages exist when a universally common component can be standardised, either by demand or consent of supplier, purchaser or market legislation. These can be to industrial standards (TAPPI), national standards (BS, British Standards MIL, Military Standards USP, United States Pharmacopoeia) and international standards (ISO). 

Most anthropometric data result from particular studies and appear in publications. Some military organizations in the United States and other countries publish anthropometric and ergonomic design standards for military populations. 

We can think of World War II period practices as plutonium production driven and embryonic efforts at civilian control. I have chosen 1954 as the cut-off date because that was the date of the transfer of control of nuclear energy in the United States from the military to the civilian control [5]. We could also use the date of the first hitemational Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955 as a cut-off date. While the pressures for production were great in every country, how they manifested themselves differed from country to country depending upon its own social, political, and cultural patterns. At that time, there were only a few coimtries involved. Because I know the USA situation best, it inevitably will serve as the baseline of my comments-which is not to infer that it is the standard or the most desirable practice or regulatory regime. 

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