Traffic police

The third column gives an approximate estimate of the standard error of the excess reduction, taking into account only statistical variations. The final column of Table 7.4 gives the excess reductions in terms of PbB. Since a reduction in petrol lead of 60% gave a reduction in PbB of exposed men and women of 4%, the conclusion might be drawn that lead in petrol contributed 7% of PbB before the reduction. Similarly, for traffic police and children, it contributed 20% and 16% respectively. These results are broadly compatible with the results of the Isotopic Lead Experiment, taking into account the special factors tending to increase exposure to PbA in Turin. 

The 26 stations mentioned above include both roadside and urban background locations, and gave mean PbA levels of 0.70 before and 0.35 fig m-3 after the change in petrol. Assuming that a reduction of 0.35 jug m-3 resulted in the falls in PbA of the last column of Table 7.4, /3 can be estimated as 7, 39 and 25 m3 kg-1 for exposed men and women, traffic police, and children respectively. Thus the falls in PbB in these subjects, coincident with the reduction in lead in petrol, are reasonably consistent with expectations based on the inhalation experiments with 203Pb and the Isotopic Lead Experiment in Piedmont. 

I. Iavicoli, B. Bocca, F. Petrucci, O. Senofonte, G. Carelli, A. Alimonti, S. Caroli, Biomonitoring of traffic police officers exposed to airborne platinum, Occup. Environ. Med, 61 (2004), 636 D639. 

Impacts from road infrastructure (road constmction, maintenance, visual impacts estimated In monetary terms in Table 6.10) Impacts from car infrastructure (service, repair, traffic police courts, insurance mostly included in cost given In Table 6.9) ... 

With the emergence of automobiles propelled by internal combustion engines, the CO emitted from the exhaust pipe has become the major source for human exposure. Serious problems exist with occupational exposure to increased ambient CO for firefighters, traffic police, toll booth attendants, coal miners, coke oven and smelter workers, and transportation mechanics. 

Pipe makers/fitters Ship dismantlers Traffic police officers... 

A study carried out in Thailand from 1998 to 1999 evaluated pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms in 78 male traffic police officers in Bangkok... 

De Sio et al. 2005) that have focused in particular on the effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and related systems in traffic police officers. The data obtained suggested that occupational exposure to PM could affect hormone concentrations. However, it is also well known that traffic policemen are a working population exposed to high levels of stress (Piercecchi-Marti et al. 1999) and psychosocial stressors are able to alter the HPA axis causing alterations to the neuroendocrine system. Moreover, a clear correlation between PM exposure and observed effects on the HPA axis cannot be established since personal PM monitoring of exposed occupational categories has not yet been performed. Consequently, caution should be used when considering the results of these studies. 

Karita K, Yano E, Jinsart W, Boudoung D, Tamura K (2001) Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function among traffic police in Bangkok, Thailand. Arch Environ Health 56 467-470 Karita K, Yano E, Tamura K, Jinsart W (2004) Effects of working and residential location areas on air pollution related respiratory symptoms in policemen and their wives in Bangkok, Thailand. Eur J Public Health 14 24-26... 

Helm D (2002) Association between palladium urinary concentrations and diseases of the thyroid and the immune system. Sci Total Environ 299 247-249 Hohr D, Steinfartz Y, Schins RPF, Knaapen AM, Martra G, Fubini B, Borm PJA (2002) The surface area rather than the surface coating determines the acute inflammatory response after instillation of fine and ultrafine Ti02 in the rat. Int J Hyg Environ Health 205 239-244 lavicoli I, Bocca B, Petrucci F, Senofonte O, Carelli G, Alimonti A, Carol S (2004) Biomonitoring of traffic police officers exposed to airborne platinum. Occup Environ Med 61 636-639... 

In order to do their job efficiently, like traffic police, enzymes need to be extremely selective and recognise the right chemicals and do the right things to thena. Once again, this task of molecular recognition is a job for a protein, and enzymes are indeed proteins. 

Although there are many attempts have been made to describe road accident problem, I used to describe the problem as a disease where the causes of road accidents are symptoms as (illness). The road safety problem is a sign of illness in society. To diagnose the problem, there are direct and indirect symptoms (causes). The direct symptoms in road safety can be easily seen in society from simple observation and data such as speed problems, alcohol and driving, vehicle conditions, road user behaviour, etc. The indirect symptoms in road safety are not simply obvious and they need more checking and examination such as the traffic management, education, traffic police enforcement, legislations, etc. 

I have identified eight groups of indicators (see Figure 3.3) of which each corresponds to a special area of road safety. The groups listed are traffic risk, personal risk, socioeconomic indicators, road safety organisational structure, traffic police and enforcement, vehicle safety, roads situation and road user behaviour. The groups measure road safety development in terms of output or input classes. The output... 

The technical means/equipments are available to the traffic police Low Not Rated Subjective... 

Level of Motorisatioo Low Direct safely measures Personal Risk Trafic Risk Indirect safely measures Road safe statistics Road safety trend Road safety R D Road safety organisation Road safety program Road safety legislation Traffic police Driver education Alcohol In traffic Speed Seat belts Road standard Paved roads... 

The enforcement index measures traffic enforcement effectiveness levels in the country. It can be based on the objective indicators such as the annual number of random breath tests (per vehicles) and the annual number of speed-violation tickets (per vehicle). Additional subjective indicators that may be added include the technical means and equipments that are available to the traffic police in the country. One study (Cameron Diamantopoulou, 2000), of the few studies in this area, has developed a combination of objective and subjective indicators to measure an enforcement index for the State of Victoria in Australia. This enforcement index cannot be used at this stage due to the lack of data from most countries. 

Even the use of police reported violations should be considered with some reservations. Often summary statistics of these violations are misrepresented as reasons for the crash or crash causes. For example, Israel s National Traffic Police publishes an annual report that contains the reasons for crashes . The most fi equent reasons cited (in that order) are deviation from lane, failure to maintain safe distance, failure to yield right of way, failure to stop at a stop sign, and failure to yield at a yield sign (Israel Police, 2001). Inattention - the most common cause of crashes according to in-depth investigations - does not appear as a cause because it is not a directly observable violation of the traffic code. 

There is often an absence of a central organization that has responsibility, authority, and accountability for highway safety. For example, in Israel a National Authority for Road Safety is supposed to coordinate all safety-related activities, but it has no authority over safety-related activities of the Ministry of Education, the National Traffic Police, the licensing administration, or the Ministry of Health. In the U.S. the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration was created in 1966 to improve traffic safety but the implementation of its recommended driver behavior and improvement programs is determined by the 50 individual states. Such decentralized safety systems lead to multiple uncoordinated efforts without a structured quality control process. In particular, by dissociating responsibility, authority, and accountability from each other motivation to evaluate and improve performance quickly dissipates. 

Newstead, S. V., M. H. Cameron and M. W. Leggett (2001). The crash reduction effectiveness of a network-wide traffic police deployment system. Accid, Anal Prev., 33, 393-406. 

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