Indirect risks

What are the indirect risks of making or using this product (For example, are harmful hy-products produced in the manufacture of this product How much energy does the manufacture of this product require, and where does the energy come from What, if any, side effects does this product cause )... 

Before researching your issue at the end of Unit 1, decide how you will use the information and skills you learned in this section. What are some possible direct and indirect risks and benefits involved in the issue you have chosen ... 

Besides the direct and indirect risks associated with the consumption of agricultural products by humans in general, several risks are specific to the consumption of animal produce from modem agriculture. These have received considerable public attention in the past, i.e. antibiotic and hormone residuals, or just recently, such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). 

Just as there are direct and indirect benefits that must be considered, there are also both direct and indirect risks. The notion of what constitutes a risk needs to be assessed broadly to encompass physical risks, psychological risks, and the social dimensions of risk (Levine, 1981 Roberts, 1998). Risks from medication trials might include dizziness, dry mouth, sleeplessness, or transient discomforts. But in addition to these physiological risks, one should consider the potential risks associated with the withholding of treatment or the dissemination of inaccurate information that may have negative personal consequence. 

The indirect risks of complementary medicine are grossly under-researched, and at present we can but guess the size of the problem (35). There are, however, particular aspects on which some data do exist. One is the attitude of practitioners towards immunization. The majority of homeopaths (36-38) and chiropractors (39) are unconvinced of the benefit of immunization. They claim that it causes more illness than it prevents disease and advise, in many instances successfully, their patients against it (40). 

During remediation operations, one can furthermore distinguish between direct and indirect risks, which in turn can be divided into foreseeable and unforeseeable risks ... 

Indirect risks pertain to calamities occurring at a later time because of negligent actions. 

The environmental burden caused by medicine use is a subject of increasing research. For now, humans seem to run no direct risk. Nevertheless, humans may run an indirect risk by harming the environment. In the short term, hope is placed upon innovations in the field of waste water treatment, and on the contribution of the patient by returning unused medicines to the pharmacy. The development of green medicines , which do not cause harm to the environment, and a responsible use and management of those medicines (green pharmacy) is the ultimate goal. 

A number of antioxidants have been accepted by the FDA as indirect additives for polymers used in food appHcations. Acceptance is deterrnined by subchronic or chronic toxicity in more than one animal species and by the concentration expected in the diet, based on the amount of the additive extracted from the polymer by typical foods or solvents that simulate food in their extractive effects. Only materials of insignificant risk to the consumer are regulated by the FDA for use in plastics contacted by food stuffs. 

The F EI measures realistic maximum loss potential under adverse operating conditions. It is based on quantifiable data. It is designed for flammable, combustible, and reactive materials that are stored, handled, or processed. It does not address frequency (risk) except indirectly, nor does it address specific hazards to people except indirectly. 

People are more willing to accept risks from which they will receive a direct, tangible benefit. A one-company town will likely have widespread community support for the company and accept the risks of its business—it directly or indirectly provides the livelihood for most families in the community. This may not be the case in an area having a broad-based manufacturing and service economy. Here the relatively small public benefit from a new plant may be outweighed by the public s perception of the plant s risk. People are unwilling to tolerate a given level of risk unless there is a direct benefit to themselves. 

Beyond these indirect costs, there are future costs associated with new or more stringent variations of existing environmental legislation. We also need to recognize that all operations, especially those within complex industry sectors like petrochemicals, carry liabilities and exposures to potential catastrophic releases. Systems do fail for a variety of reasons, leading to unplarmed and sometimes innocent mistakes, that may result in third-party exposures for environmental damages or health risk exposures. These costs are related to legal fees, loss in consumer confidence, and subsequent losses in market shares for the products a company sells, as well as the clean-up associated with the spill or release. 

Simpson (1988) reviewed studies which considered individual differences in risk perception and the effects of these differences on behavior. A study by Verhaegen et al. (1985) looked at three groups of workers in wire mills. The first group comprised those who had been directly involved in events which led to the accident (the "active" group). The second group ("passive") were those who had only been involved indirectly ("innocent bystanders") and the third group were a control group who had not been involved in accidents at all. 

The prime requirements for the separators in alkaline storage batteries are on the one hand to maintain durably the distance between the electrodes, and on the other to permit the ionic current flow in as unhindered a manner as possible. Since the electrolyte participates only indirectly in the electrochemical reactions, and serves mainly as ion-transport medium, no excess of electrolyte is required, i.e., the electrodes can be spaced closely together in order not to suffer unnecessary power loss through additional electrolyte resistance. The separator is generally flat, without ribs. It has to be sufficiently absorbent and it also has to retain the electrolyte by capillary forces. The porosity should be at a maximum to keep the electrical resistance low (see Sec. 9.1.2.3) the pore size is governed by the risk of electronic shorts. For systems where the electrode substance... 

Where small quantities of high-purity steam is required for electronic chip, pharmaceutical, sterilization, food preparation, and similar process applications, a small risk of steam contamination may exist. This may be caused directly by the use of amine treatments or indirectly through process contaminants or the transport of iron oxides. Consequently, alternative arrangements for steam generation are made. 

Administrative representatives are often shy about developing water reuse projects. Evaluations of the risks related to water reuse have been twisted so as to be employed in political arguments during election campaigns, which may explain the reluctance of politicians. Examples of failure and success of indirect potable reuse projects in the United States are provided by [13]. Such experiences point out the importance of public education as regards the human interaction with the water cycle and the management of water resources. The population should be aware that... 

Sources of land pollution include direct dumping of domestic and industrial solid waste, excessive application of agrochemicals, and indirect contamination resulting from leaks or from leaching of hazardous components from liquid waste disposal sites or from atmospheric fallout. Land may also become contaminated by chemicals processed, stored or dumped at the site, perhaps in the distant past. Such contamination may pose a health risk to workers on the site, those subsequently involved in building, construction or engineering works, or the public (e.g. arising from trespass), and to animals. 

Because of the complexity of computer hardware and software and because of the intricacy of a risk assessment, the FDA has to all intents and purposes adopted an indirect regulatory posture. Regulated companies are informally urged to conduct independent audits of Part 11 compliance, utilizing in-house or consultant expertise. The agency can then review the details of the audit report and the credentials for experience, expertise, and independence of the auditor. Follow-up investigation of speciflc points can then be laser-focused on specific areas of concern. 

The pattern of hormonal risk factors involved in the development of endometrial cancer is similar to those associated with the development of breast cancer. In addition, there is substantial evidence to suggest that HRT can increase the risk (Beral et al, 1999 Bingham et al, 1998). Compared to the UK, the incidence of endometrial cancer in countries such as Japan is relatively low (Bingham et al, 1998). It has been suggested that dietary factors may be responsible for the reduced incidence, and there is indirect evidence from epidemiology studies which suggests that increased consumption of soy products may lower the risk of endometrial cancer. However, these data are not conclusive. To date, no studies have demonstrated a link between consumption of phytoestrogens and an increased risk of endometrial cancer. 

However, much of the content will be of great value to a wider readership whose interests are directly or indirectly concerned with any aspect of risk management. 

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