Toxicity of copper

Bitton, G. and Freihofer, V., Influence of extracellular polysaccharides on the toxicity of copper and cadmium toward Klebsiella aerogenes, Microb Ecol, 4 (2), 119-125, 1977. 

Sunda, W. and Guillard, R.R.C., The Relationship between Cupric Ion Activity and the Toxicity of Copper to Phytoplankton, Doctoral Dissertation, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1975. Available at http //hdl.handle.net/1912/1275. 

Han F.X., Hargreaves J., Kingery W.L., Huggett D.B., Schlenk D.K. Accumulation, distribution and toxicity of copper in soils of catfish pond receiving periodic copper sulfate applications. J Environ Qual 2001b 30 912-919. 

Finlayson, B.J. and K.M. Verrue. 1982. Toxicities of copper, zinc, and cadmium mixtures to juvenile chinook salmon. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 111 645-650. 

Sauter, S., K.S. Buxton, K.J. Macek, and S.R. Petrocelli. 1976. Effects of exposure to heavy metals on selected freshwater fish. Toxicity of copper, cadmium, chromium and lead to eggs and fry of seven fish species. U.S. Environ. Protection Agen. Rep. 600/3-76-105. 75 pp. 

In seawater, the major chemical species of copper are Cu(OH)Cl and Cu(OH)2 and these account for about 65% of the total copper in seawater (Boyle 1979). The levels of copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) increase from about 18% of the total copper at pH 7.0 to 90% at pH 8.6 copper carbonate (CuC03) dropped from 30% at pH 7.0 to less than 0.1% at pH 8.6 (USEPA 1980). The dominant copper species in seawater over the entire ambient pH range are copper hydroxide, copper carbonate, and cupric ion (USEPA 1980). Bioavailability and toxicity of copper in marine ecosystems is promoted by oxine and other lipid soluble synthetic organic chelators (Bryan and Langston 1992). 

Tests show that the presence of soil reduces the toxicity of copper to the soil-dwelling nematode Caenorhabditis elegans copper toxicity to nematodes increases with increasing densities of bacteria and increasing concentrations of sodium chloride or potassium chloride (Donkin and Dusenbery 1993). Terrestrial isopods efficiently assimilate and store copper as detoxihed granules in the hepatopancreas this activity is in contrast to many species of marine crustaceans that are unable to assimilate, detoxify, or otherwise regulate copper (Weeks and Rainbow 1993). 

In the rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus), toxicity of copper at high concentrations is due to the coagulatory action on cellular proteins and to interference with respiratory processes at low concentrations, copper causes degenerative changes in certain tissues and interferes with glutathione equilibrium (Hubschman 1967). Larvae of the red crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) exposed to copper as embryos are less sensitive than those exposed after hatching, suggesting acclimatization (Rice and Harrison 1983). 

No data are available on the toxicity of copper to avian wildlife. All studies with birds and copper use domestic chickens, ducks, or turkeys (Table 3.6). Copper, however, may indirectly affect avian wildlife by curtailing certain prey species. Winger et al. (1984), for example, show that apple snails (Pomacea paludosa) are not only extremely susceptible to copper (LC50 of 24 to 57 pg/L in 96 h immatures most sensitive), but are the primary food of the snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis), an endangered species. The decline of the apple snail in southern Florida coincided with the use of copper-diquat to control hydrilla aquatic weeds (Hydrilla verticillata), with serious implications for the snail kite (Winger et al. 1984). 

Ahsanullah, M. and G.H. Amott. 1978. Acute toxicity of copper, cadmium, and zinc to larvae of the crab Paragrapsus quadridentatus (H. Milne Edwards), and implications for water quality criteria. Aust. Jour. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 29 1-8. 

Ankley, G.T., V.R. Mattson, E.N. Leonard, C.W. West, and J.L. Bennett. 1993. Predicting the acute toxicity of copper in freshwater sediments evaluation of the role of acid-volatile sulfide. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12 315-320. 

Aziz, J.B., N.M. Akrawi, and G.A. Nassori. 1991. The effect of chronic toxicity of copper on the activity of Balbiani rings and nucleolar organizing region in the salivary gland chromosomes of Chironomus ninevah larvae. Environ. Pollut. 69 125-130. 

Borgmann, U., W.P. Norwood, and C. Clarke. 1993. Accumulation, regulation and toxicity of copper, zinc, lead and mercury in Hyalella azteca. Hydrobiol. 259 79-89. 

Coglianse, M.P. and M. Martin. 1981. Individual and interactive effects of environmental stress on the embryonic development of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. I. The toxicity of copper and silver. Mar. Environ. Res. 5 13-27. 

Hoare, K., J. Davenport, and A.R. Beaumont. 1995b. Effects of exposure and previous exposure to copper on growth of veliger larvae and survivorship of Mytilus edulis juveniles. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 120 163-168. Hodson, P.V., U. Borgmann, and H. Shear. 1979. Toxicity of copper to aquatic biota. Pages 307-372 in J.O. 

McNulty, H.R., B.S. Anderson, J.W. Hunt, S.L. Turpen, and M.M. Singer. 1994. Age-specific toxicity of copper to larval topsmcl l Alherinops affinis. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 13 487-492. 

Mount, D.L. and C.E. Stephen. 1969. Chronic toxicity of copper to the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) in soft water. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 26 2449-2457. 

Ozoh, P.T.E. 1992a. The effects of salinity, temperature and sediment on the toxicity of copper to juvenile Hediste (Nereis) diversicolor (O.F. Muller). Environ. Monitor. Assess. 21 1-10. 

Romeu-Moreno, A., A. Aguilar, L. Arola, and A. Mas. 1994. Respiratory toxicity of copper. Environ. Health Perspect. 102 (Suppl. 3) 339-340. 

Straus, D.L. and C.S. Tucker. 1993. Acute toxicity of copper sulfate and chelated copper to channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Jour. World Aquacult. Soc. 24 390-395. 

Welsh, P.G., J.F. Skidmore, D.J. Spry, D.G. Dixon, P.V. Hodson, N.J. Hutchinson, and B.E. Hickie. 1993. Effect of pH and dissolved organic carbon on the toxicity of copper to larval fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) in natural lake waters of low alkalinity. Canad. Jour. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50 1356-1362. 

Winner, R.W. and H.A. Owen. 1991. Toxicity of copper to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlorophyceae) and Ceriodaphnia dubia (Crustacea) in relation to changes in water chemistry of a freshwater pond. Aquat. Toxicol. 21 157-170. 

Sayer, M.D.J., J.P. Reader, and R. Morris. 1989. The effect of calcium concentration on the toxicity of copper, lead and zinc to yolk-sac fry of the brown trout, Salmo trutta L., in soft, acid water. Jour. Fish Biol. 35 323-332. 

Verriopoulos, G. and S. Dimas. 1988. Combined toxicity of copper, cadmium, zinc, lead, nickel, and chrome to the copepod Tisbe holothuriae. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 41 378-384. 

Ahsanullah, M. and Florence, T. M. (1984). Toxicity of copper to the marine amphiphod Allorchestes compressa in the presence of water- and lipid-soluble ligands, Marine Biol., 84, 41-45. 

Scott-Fordsmand, J. J., Weeks, J. M. and Hopkin, S. P. (2000). Importance of contamination history for understanding toxicity of copper to earthworm Eisenia fetica (Oligochaeta annelida) using neutral-red retention assay, Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 19, 1774-1780. 

Brungs, W.A., Geckler, J.R., and Cast, M. Acute and chronic toxicity of copper to the fathead minnow in a surface water of variable quality, Water Res., 10(l) 37-43, 1976. 

Judy, R.D., Jr. The acute toxicity of copper to Gammarus fasciatus say, a freshwater amphipod. Bull Environ. Contam. Toxicol, 21(l/2) 219-224, 1979. 

Torres, P., Tort, L., and Flos, R. Acute toxicity of copper to Mediterranean dogfish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol C, 86(1) 169-171, 1987. 

Winner, R.W. and Farrell, M.P. Acute and chronic toxicity of copper to four species of Daphnia, J. Fish. Res. Board Canada, 33 1685-1691, 1976. 

Carlson-Ekvall, C.E.A. Morisson, G.M. Toxicity of copper in the presence of organic substances in sewage sludge. Environ. Technol. 1995, 16, 243-251. 

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