THE NINETEENTH CENTURy

The nineteenth century witnessed the emergence of new states in Europe. The Great Powers in Europe at the time dictated the conditions under which a state could become independent. Stephen Krasner notes, there is no example [...] of a Balkan state where domestic actors were able to choose their own fate completely.  

Under this headline, it becomes all the more interesting to observe that the new states came into existence after agreeing to different conditions. The European Communities did something that seems similar in the early 1990s. The Guidelines for the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe and in the Soviet Union make 

Before embarking on the division of the world, Lorimer submits the question whether each civilization should not be measured by its own standards, likening the application of Western European standards to Mongolian politics to the task of construing Chinese by Romanic grammar rules.This debate on the existence of universalism is still ongoing. 

Lorimer finds an answer to this submission the laws of recognition only apply selectively. He finds three concentric zones in humanity civilized humanity, barbarous humanity and savage humanity. The rules of international law only apply to the first category to the civiUzed world. The second category is a questionable candidate for the law of nations, for there are circumstances when it is partially recognized to be covered by existing international law. 

Lorimer announces the inequality of states within the first category of civilized states. Neither citizens within a state nor states within the international community are equal. They differ in power and therefore in rights. It is difficult to imagine a more explicit carte blanche and justification for the Great Powers to organize Eastern Europe after their own wishes. This is hardly an explanation still acceptable today. 

The prestige of Werner, a strong supporter of purely naturalistic descriptions, was such that, even after the first chemical analyses and the first crystallographic determinations, many treatises in the early 19 century-among them Brochant (1800) and Jameson (1804) (which were transcriptions of the scientific teaching of Werner) described minerals only on the basis of their a ussere Kennzeichen, i.e., their external characteristics, color and appearance. 

By the end of the 18 century mineralogy had gradually passed into a )iroto-scientific stage. Its fundamental features we re appropriately developed, and this led, in the 19 century, to the accumulation of great amounts of data and to the formulation of many theories about the composition of minerals in general and micas in particular. These are discussed separately in the following sections. 

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It was known in the sixteenth century that silver salts were photosensitive, but it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century, when Herschel found that silver chloride was soluble in sodium thiosulphate, that photography became possible. 

In the nineteenth century. Merling treated eyeloheptatriene with bromine and obtained a crystalline solid. Reasoning from some information gained in working Problem 15. what might this solid be ... 

In the nineteenth century, scientists showed that many substances, such as oxygen and carbon, had a smallest recognizable constituent... 

The dawn of the nineteenth century saw a drastic shift from the dominance of French chemistry to first English-, and, later, German-influenced chemistry. Lavoisier s dualistic views of chemical composition and his explanation of combustion and acidity were landmarks but hardly made chemistry an exact science. Chemistry remained in the nineteenth century basically qualitative in its nature. Despite the Newtonian dream of quantifying the forces of attraction between chemical substances and compiling a table of chemical affinity, no quantitative generalization emerged. It was Dalton s chemical atomic theory and the laws of chemical combination explained by it that made chemistry an exact science. 

For two thousand years atoms were considered the smallest and indivisible units of nature. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Dalton got chemistry on the path of atomic theory with his book, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, in which he argued that unbreakable atoms form compounds by linking with other atoms in simple... 

Ethylene (as well as propylene) produced from carbon dioxide subsequently allows ready preparation of the whole array of hydrocarbons, as well as their derivatives and products that have become essential to our everyday life. Whereas the nineteenth century relied mostly on coal for energy as well as derived chemical products, the twentieth century greatly supplemented this with petroleum and nat-... 

Hydrocarbons are divided into two mam classes aliphatic and aromatic This classifi cation dates from the nineteenth century when organic chemistry was devoted almost entirely to the study of materials from natural sources and terms were coined that reflected a substance s origin Two sources were fats and oils and the word aliphatic was derived from the Greek word aleiphar meaning ( fat ) Aromatic hydrocarbons irre spective of their own odor were typically obtained by chemical treatment of pleasant smelling plant extracts... 

During the nineteenth century it was widely believed—incorrectly as we 11 soon see— that cycloalkane rings are planar A leading advocate of this view was the German chemist Adolf von Baeyer He noted that compounds containing rings other than those... 

Acetylene was discovered m 1836 by Edmund Davy and characterized by the French chemist P E M Berthelot m 1862 It did not command much attention until its large scale preparation from calcium carbide m the last decade of the nineteenth century stim ulated interest m industrial applications In the first stage of that synthesis limestone and coke a material rich m elemental carbon obtained from coal are heated m an electric furnace to form calcium carbide... 

The SI units of frequency are reciprocal seconds (s ) given the name hertz and the symbol Hz m honor of the nineteenth century physicist Heinrich R Hertz The constant of proportionality h is called Planck s constant and has the value... 

Ludwig Claisen was a Ger man chemist who worked during the last two decades of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth His name is associated with three reac tions The Claisen-Schmidt reaction was presented in Section 18 10 the Claisen condensation is discussed in this section and the C/a/sen rearrangement will be intro duced in Section 24 13... 

This reaction is known as the Hofmann elimination, it was developed by August W Hofmann m the middle of the nineteenth century and is both a synthetic method to pre pare alkenes and an analytical tool for structure determination... 

The key compound m the synthesis of aspirin salicylic acid is prepared from phe nol by a process discovered m the nineteenth century by the German chemist Hermann Kolbe In the Kolbe synthesis also known as the Kolbe—Schmitt reaction, sodium phen oxide IS heated with carbon dioxide under pressure and the reaction mixture is subse quently acidified to yield salicylic acid... 

One of the oldest methods for the synthesis of ammo acids dates back to the nineteenth century and is simply a nucleophilic substitution m which ammonia reacts with an a halo carboxylic acid... 

Colorimetry, in which a sample absorbs visible light, is one example of a spectroscopic method of analysis. At the end of the nineteenth century, spectroscopy was limited to the absorption, emission, and scattering of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared electromagnetic radiation. During the twentieth century, spectroscopy has been extended to include other forms of electromagnetic radiation (photon spectroscopy), such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves, as well as energetic particles (particle spectroscopy), such as electrons and ions. ... 

Classical and Quantum Mechanics. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a revolution was brewing in the world of physics. For hundreds of years, the Newtonian laws of mechanics had satisfactorily provided explanations and supported experimental observations in the physical sciences. However, the experimentaUsts of the nineteenth century had begun delving into the world of matter at an atomic level. This led to unsatisfactory explanations of the observed patterns of behavior of electricity, light, and matter, and it was these inconsistencies which led Bohr, Compton, deBroghe, Einstein, Planck, and Schrn dinger to seek a new order, another level of theory, ie, quantum theory. 

Acetone was originally observed about 1595 as a product of the distillation of sugar of lead (lead acetate). In the nineteenth century it was obtained by the destmctive distillation of metal acetates, wood, and carbohydrates with lime, and pyrolysis of citric acid. Its composition was determined by Liebig and Dumas in 1832. 

Electro-Kinetic Effects. The appHcation of d-c potential in filtration or sedimentation is known to have a beneficial effect on the separation. Although this has been known and studied since the beginning of the nineteenth century, practical appHcation and development have only accelerated since the late 1980s commercial appHcation is likely. 

Textile dyes were, until the nineteenth century invention of aniline dyes, derived from biological sources plants or animals, eg, insects or, as in the case of the highly prized classical dyestuff Tyrian purple, a shellfish. Some of these natural dyes are so-caUed vat dyes, eg, indigo and Tyrian purple, in which a chemical modification after binding to the fiber results in the intended color. Some others are direct dyes, eg, walnut sheU and safflower, that can be apphed directly to the fiber. The majority, however, are mordant dyes a metal salt precipitated onto the fiber facUitates the binding of the dyestuff Aluminum, iron, and tin salts ate the most common historical mordants. The color of the dyed textile depends on the mordant used for example, cochineal is crimson when mordanted with aluminum, purple with iron, and scarlet with tin (see Dyes AND DYE INTERMEDIATES). 

Organic fluorine compounds were first prepared in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Pioneer work by the Belgian chemist, F. Swarts, led to observations that antimony(Ill) fluoride reacts with organic compounds having activated carbon—chlorine bonds to form the corresponding carbon—fluorine bonds. Preparation of fluorinated compounds was faciUtated by fluorinations with antimony(Ill) fluoride containing antimony(V) haUdes as a reaction catalyst. 

Steam also is blended with air in some gasification units to promote the overall process via the endothermic steam—carbon reaction to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This was common practice at the turn of the nineteenth century, when so-called producer gasifiers were employed to manufacture LHV gas from different types of biomass and wastes. The producer gas from biomass and wastes had heating values around 5.9 MJ /mr at... 

By the middle of the nineteenth century it was realized, both in England and in the United States, that kerosene, or coal oil, distilled from coal, could produce a luminous combustion flame. Commercialization was rapid. By the time of the U.S. Civil War, /yr (23,000 gal/yr) of lamp oil was... 

Large-scale recovery of light oil was commercialized in England, Germany, and the United States toward the end of the nineteenth century (151). Industrial coal-tar production dates from the earliest operation of coal-gas faciUties. The principal bulk commodities derived from coal tar are wood-preserving oils, road tars, industrial pitches, and coke. Naphthalene is obtained from tar oils by crystallization, tar acids are derived by extraction of tar oils with caustic, and tar bases by extraction with sulfuric acid. Coal tars generally contain less than 1% benzene and toluene, and may contain up to 1% xylene. The total U.S. production of BTX from coke-oven operations is insignificant compared to petroleum product consumptions. 

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