Work in the Nineteenth Century

The first derivative (4) of aminomethylenemaionates (1) was prepared in 13% yield by Just through the reaction of diethyl sodiomalonate and imidoyl chloride (3) in diethyl ether (1885CB319, 1885CB2623). Disubsti-tuted malonate (5) was also isolated from the reaction mixture in 9% yield. 

Imidoyl chlorides of toluidines and naphthylamines were also applied (1886CB979). To avoid the formation of the disubstituted malonates, 2 mol of sodiomalonate was reacted with 1 mol of imidoyl chlorides (1886C B979). 

When diethyl (arylamino)phenylmethylenemalonates (6) were heated in aqueous hydrochloric acid, only acetophenone and the corresponding amine were obtained (1885CB2623 1886CB979), but quinoIine-3-carboxyI-ates (7) were the products in the melt when 6 was heated to above 150°C (1885CB2632 1886CB1541). 

In o-phenylenediamines, only one of the amino groups reacted with compound 8 (R = H) to give 7V-(2-aminophenyl)aminomethylenemalo-nates (11, R = H), whereas both amino groups in m- and p-phenylenedia-mines reacted (1895CB822 1897CB2022). 

When diethyl aminomethylenemalonate (9, R1 = R2 = H) was reacted with aqueous ammonia at 100°C in a closed tube, malonamide was obtained. Decomposition of 9 (R1 = R2 = H) also occurred on the action of boiling aqueous barium hydroxide (1892JCS791). 

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Small particles scatter and absorb light. This phenomenon has been used to investigate aerosol behavior extensively since Tyndall s work in the nineteenth century. In more recent years, instruments have been built to take advantage of light interactions to deduce particle size distributions. To appreciate how such devices work, we introduce certain basic principles of light interaction with airborne material. 

In the nineteenth century. Merling treated eyeloheptatriene with bromine and obtained a crystalline solid. Reasoning from some information gained in working Problem 15. what might this solid be ... 

Extended working weeks of 60 hours or more were common in the nineteenth century, but for much of the twentieth century the norm has been a 5-day/40-... 

The three men whose work later in the nineteenth century was crucial in bringing clarity to this principle were two Germans, the physician Julius Robert Mayer and the great polymath Hermann von Helmholtz, and the British amateur scientist James Joule. In a lecture delivered by Helmholtz on February 7, 1854, in Konigsberg on The Interaction of Natural Forces, ... 

Cis- and trans-Dichlorodiammineplatinum(II). The compounds cis- and frans-dichlorodiammineplatinum(If) were known to chemists even before the geometric characterization work of Alfred Werner in the nineteenth century.30 In... 

Although the ECT work was initiated on human beings1 6 in the nineteenth century, the more recent work involves in-vivo investigations on a variety of model animals at least in the occidental world in parallel, there is considerable clinical work in China, and to a lesser degree, in some other countries. A survey of some representative ECT studies on animals is presented next. 

Examples of other work on research schools M. Eckert, "Sommerfeld s School and the Electron Theory of Metals," HSPS 17 (1987) 191234 Gerald Geison, Michael Foster and the Cambridge School of Physiology The Scientific Enterprise in Late Victorian Society (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1978) L. J. Klosterman, "A Research School of Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century Jean Baptiste Dumas and His Research Students," Annals of Science 43 (1985) 180 H. A. M. Snelders, "J. H. van t Hoffs Research School in Amsterdam (18771895)," Janus 71 (1984) 130 F. L. Holmes, "The Formation of the Munich School of Metabolism," in William Coleman and F. L. Holmes, eds., The Investigative Enterprise Studies on Nineteenth-Century Physiology and Medicine (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London University of California Press, 1988). 

Perhaps the most outstanding history of chemistry in the nineteenth century was the four-volume work by German chemist Hermann Kopp at midcentury. The most controversial history was Wurtz s 1869 book with its infamous prolegomenon ... 

Microscopists in the nineteenth century had begun to describe changes in the appearance of muscle fibers during contraction. Their experiments were concurrent with those of physiologists examining the relation between the work done by striated muscle and its heat... 

The catalysis field began in the nineteenth century with work on heterogeneous platinum group metals from such contributors as Berzelius, Faraday, Dobereiner, Mitscherhch, Davy, Sabatier, and Ostwald [1, 2]. Iridium never held a very high place in the field, however, because it showed no special advantages. Rylander expresses this point well in his classic 1967 work on heterogeneous catalysis [3],... 

Of critical importance was the work of Louis Pasteur in France, Robert Koch in Germany, and Joseph Lister in England in the nineteenth century that established the germ theory of disease, a demonstration that took an amazing amount of time to catch on. Too many people, including scientists, do not understand that some fraction of what they know is just not so. People hold onto their misinformation with remarkable tenacity, retarding the acceptance of new knowledge. 

The early history of enzymes is associated widi die process of brewing and die production of wine because of die economic importance of these processes in Europe in the nineteenth century. Following on from the work of Pasteur, it was Buchner and others who showed that an extract of yeast carried out fermentation (i.e. die conversion of glucose to alcohol) as well as die yeast cell itself. The agents diat did diis catalysis in the extract were simply described as in yeast which, from the Greek enQn) and zyme, is the name enzyme was derived. 

For me, nothing illustrates this chasm between observation and chemical theory better than my experiences as a teaching assistant in the laboratory of a beginning chemistry course. Students were carefully following procedures described in the lab manuals, filling in the blanks to describe their observations. Then as a kind of climax they were asked to Write the equation for this reaction. Students were often stunned by this request, for they could perceive no connection between what they had observed and the equation they were expected to write. This gap between the perceptual experience of events and their conceptual representation is wider and deeper than for any other of the basic sciences. That fact in large part accounts for the late arrival of chemistry at its maturity, with the work of John Dalton early in the nineteenth century. 

Those we now call Karo or Karo Batak were declared an objective of Dutch missionary work for political reasons, because of their proximity to the Muslim and anti-Dutch Acehnese (Kipp 1990). The expansion of the Rhenisch mission in that direction was therefore not encouraged by colonial authority, the work being entrusted to the Dutch Missionary Society (NZG). Karos appear to have accepted the broad exonym Batak in the nineteenth century, but the Dutch mission favoured a distinctive term, to reflect the very different language in which they preached, to cater to Karo sensitivity to Toba domination, and to emphasise that the German mission should keep out of its sphere (Kipp 1993 28-38 Steedly 1996). 

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