The Influence of Clouds

As an alternative experiment I increase cloud cover uniformly by a factor of 1.1 at all latitudes, both on land and at sea. The modification is made in subroutine CLIMINP, which reads the values of cloud cover from a file. The modified program is listed as DAV12. 

DIM sleq(nrow, ncol), unk(nrow), excoeff(nrow, ncol), ovol(nrow) 

DIM y(nrow), dely(nrow), yp(nrow), incind(nrow) 

DIM lwflux(nlat), xlat(nlat), albedo(nlat), insol(nlat) 

DIM hcap(nlat), cxlat(nlat), latmp(nlat), aveza(nlat) 

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One such feedback is the influence of clouds and water vapor. As the climate warms, more water vapor enters the atmosphere. But how much And which parts of the atmosphere, high or low And how does the increased humidity affect cloud formation While the relationships among clouds, water vapor, and global climate are complicated in and of themselves, the situation is further complicated by the fact that aerosols exert a poorly understood influence on clouds. 

Atkinson, R., D. L. Baulch, R. A. Cox, R. F. Hampson, J. A. Kerr, M. J. Rossie, and J. Troe, Evaluated Kinetic and Photochemical Data for Atmospheric Chemistry. Supplement V. IUPAC Subcommittee on Gas Kinetic Data Evaluation for Atmospheric Chemistry, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 26, 521-1011 (1997). Bordewijk, J. A., H. Slaper, H. A. J. M. Reinen, and E. Schlamann, Total Solar Radiation and the Influence of Clouds and Aerosols on the Biologically Effective UV, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 2151-2154 (1995). 

Figure 1. The influence of cloud termperature on the SO4—/NO3 - ratio of winter precipitation. (Reprinted with permission from ref. 14. Copyright 1987 Pergamon.)...

From the discussion in the preceding Sections, even without addressing the influence of clouds, it is clear that the terrestrial solar spectrum is highly variable. So, how can... 

A parameterised approach for the calculation of clear-sky NO2 - photolysis Jno2 rates was used based on the band scheme by Landgraf and Crutzen (1998) in combination with actinic fluxes parameterised following Krol and Van Weele (1997). The diagnostic operator does not reflect the influence of clouds on ji o2 and the adjustments to the equilibrium because of hydro-carbons in the lower troposphere and abundant 0-radical in the higher stratosphere and mesosphere. 

Williams, I E., F. I Dentener and A. R. van den Berg (2002) The influence of cloud chemistry on HOx and NOx in the moderately polluted marine boundary layer a 1-D modelling study. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2, 39-54 Williams, I, V. Gros, E. Atlas, K. Madejczyk, A.Batsaikhan, H. F. Scholer, C. Forster, B. Quack, N. Yassaa, R. Sander and R. Van Dingenen (2007) Possible evidence for a connection between methyl iodide emissions and Saharan dust. Journal of Geophysical Research 112, doi 10.1029/2005JD006702... 

In this study we examined the influence of concentration conditions, acidity of solutions, and electrolytes inclusions on the liophilic properties of the surfactant-rich phases of polyethoxylated alkylphenols OP-7 and OP-10 at the cloud point temperature. The liophilic properties of micellar phases formed under different conditions were determined by the estimation of effective hydration values and solvatation free energy of methylene and carboxyl groups at cloud-point extraction of aliphatic acids. It was demonstrated that micellar phases formed from the low concentrated aqueous solutions of the surfactant have more hydrophobic properties than the phases resulting from highly concentrated solutions. The influence of media acidity on the liophilic properties of the surfactant phases was also exposed. 

The study of the mechanism of cloud point micellar extractions by phases of non-ionic surfactant (NS) is an aspect often disregarded in most literature reports and, thus, is of general interest. The effective application of the micellar extraction in the analysis is connected with the principled and the least studied problem about the influence of hydrophobicity, stmcture and substrate charge on the distribution between the water and non-ionic surfactant-rich phase. 

Clouds cover roughly two-thirds of our earth s surface and play an important role in influencing global climate by affecting the radiation budget. Cirrus clouds are one example of a cloud type whose optical properties are not accurately known. Cirrus clouds form in the upper troposphere and are composed almost exclusively of non-spherical ice crystal particles. The impact of cloud coverage on dispersion of pollution in the atmosphere is an area of great concern and intensive study. 

Vapor cloud explosion blast models presented so far have not addressed a major feature of gas explosions, namely, variability in blast strength. Furthermore, TNT blast characteristics do not correspond well to those of gas-explosion blasts, as evidenced by the influence of distance on TNT equivalency observed in vapor cloud explosion blasts. 

The third group is the continuum, models, and these are based on simple concepts from classical electromagnetism. It is convenient to divide materials into two classes, electrical conductors and dielectrics. In a conductor such as metallic copper, the conduction electrons are free to move under the influence of an applied electric field. In a dielectric material such as glass, paraffin wax or paper, all the electrons are bound to the molecules as shown schematically in Figure 15.2. The black circles represent nuclei, and the electron clouds are represented as open circles. 

Similarly, all points within a metal, which consists of an ordered rigid lattice of metal cations surrounded by a cloud of free electrons, are electrically neutral. Transport of charge through a metal under the influence of a potential difference is due to the flow of free electrons, i.e. to electronic conduction. The simultaneous transport of electrons through a metal, transport of ions through a solution and the transfer of electrons at the metal/solution interfaces constitute an electrochemical reaction, in which the electrode at which positive current flows from the solution to the electrode is the cathode (e.g. M (aq.) + ze M) and the electrode at which positive flows from it to the solution (e.g. M - M (aq.) -)- ze) is the anode. 

Table 16-2 presents what might be termed the minimum set of constituents that must be considered in the case of cloud/rainwater. If we consider the amount of water, L, to be fixed by atmospheric physical processes, the minimum number of input components that can vary are SO2, NH3, CO2, and whatever solute is present from the CCN, often one or another sulfate compound between H2SO4 and (NH4)2S04. Occasionally, salt particles from the ocean surface may be sufficiently abundant to provide enough solute to influence the pH via the inherent alkalinity of seawater, and we will consider that as a second, somewhat more complicated possibility. 

The putative feedback involves the influence of emissions of this aerosolgenic gas, (CH3)2S, that influences cloud albedo and hence either the temperature of the seawater in which the phytoplankton live or the amount of light available for their photosynthesis. Figure 17-9 represents the hypothetical feedback loop, and emphasizes that even the sign of the feedback is not known. Contradictory evidence has been developed... 

Cloud Point Measurements Cloud points were recorded by the visual observation of aqueous solutions containing 1% W/V surfactant. The measurement defines the temperature at which the system under test shows a characteristic transitional change from a clear solution to an opalescent or cloudy state. All cloud points were recorded in both ascending and descending temperature cycles to ensure data confidence. The influence of salt and/or oils on the cloud point were systematically evaluated. 

Cloud Points The influence of added NaCl on the observed cloud points of 1% W/V solutions of the four nonionic surfactants under observation are given in Figure 1. Approximately linear correlations were observed as the aqueous NaCl level was increased, with negative coefficients recorded between 0.22 - 0.3 K.g "1dm3. Higher loadings of surfactant were found to increase the cloud point. It was observed also that the inclusion of small quantities of oils to surfactant solutions could either elevate or depress the cloud point. The significance of this fact will be developed later. 

Most stars that are forming or already formed in interstellar clouds are of the low mass variety these objects are relatively cool (by stellar standards)3 and do not heat up the area surrounding them greatly. Since the influence of gravity results in higher... 

The influence of this cloud of negative charge on the type of reagents that will attack benzene is discussed below (p. 131). 

Fig. 2.2 The state of the incipient solar system during the T Tauri phase of the young sun. The central region around the sun was blown free from the primeval dust cloud. Behind the shock front is the disc with the remaining solar nebula, which contained the matter formed by the influence of the solar wind on the primeval solar nebula. From Gaffey (1997)... 

Such enantiomeric excesses have not been observed in analyses of the corresponding a-H-a-aminoalkanoic acids. According to the authors, the excess of the L-forms could be due to a partial photocleavage of the racemic amino acid mixture as a result of the influence of circularly polarized UV light in a presolar cloud (Cronin and Pizzarello, 2000). 

Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced only H and He atoms with a little Li, from which nuclei the first generation of stars must have formed. Large clouds of H and He when above the Jeans Mass condensed under the influence of gravitational attraction until they reached the temperatures and densities required for a protostar to form, as outlined. Nuclear fusion powers the luminosity of the star and also results in the formation of heavier atomic nuclei. 

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