The cost of containment

The application of containment principles developed for the safe culture and process of pathogenic micro-organisms can be seen to be appropriate to modern process biotechnology. Physical encapsulation of fermenters is a 

Many modern downstream processes involve the use of equipment items that are relatively compact yet possess high process capacity and are capable of remote, even pre-programmed control. Enclosure within Class III type cabinets offers a practical and reliable means of ensuring that such process steps can be carried out without risk of release of potentially hazardous products into the workplace environment. 

Ratledge, C. (1985). Is biotechnology safe J. Chem. Tech. BiotechnoL, 35B, 1-2. 

Leaver, G., Norton, M.G. and Hambleton, P. (1988). Enabling technology for safe biological processing - a collaborative approach, Proc. Interphex Con., 28. Cahners Exhibn. Ltd., Richmond, pp. 48-58. 

Hambleton, P., Bennett, A.M., Leaver, G. and Benbough, J.E. (1992). Biosafety monitoring devices for biotechnology processes. Trends. BiotechnoL, 10, 192-199. 

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Table 2 presents vendor-supplied cost estimates for implementing their frozen barrier technology at brownfield redevelopment sites. Costs for RKK s system are compared with costs for a sheet pile wall barrier. The estimates are based on the cost of containment at a 3.5-acre site with contamination 50 ft below ground surface (D221647, p. 3). 

This part includes information on providing a suitable container for items supplied via an NHS prescription form. To cover the cost of containers and other items which may need to be supplied to patients (for example, a 5-mL plastic measuring spoon) every prescription (except an oxygen prescription) will attract a flat fee for supplying a container, whether or not one was supplied. 

The second application of the CFTI approach described here involves calculations of the free energy differences between conformers of the linear form of the opioid pentapeptide DPDPE in aqueous solution [9, 10]. DPDPE (Tyr-D-Pen-Gly-Phe-D-Pen, where D-Pen is the D isomer of /3,/3-dimethylcysteine) and other opioids are an interesting class of biologically active peptides which exhibit a strong correlation between conformation and affinity and selectivity for different receptors. The cyclic form of DPDPE contains a disulfide bond constraint, and is a highly specific S opioid [llj. Our simulations provide information on the cost of pre-organizing the linear peptide from its stable solution structure to a cyclic-like precursor for disulfide bond formation. Such... 

Carboxylate exchangers contain —COOH groups which have weak acidic properties and will only function as cation exchangers when the pH is sufficiently high (pH > 6) to permit complete dissociation of the —COOH site. Outside this range the ion exchanger can be used only at the cost of reduced capacity. 

Time, Cost, and Equipment Analysis time can vary from several minutes for samples containing only a few constituents to more than an hour for more complex samples. Preliminary sample preparation may substantially increase the analysis time. Instrumentation for gas chromatography ranges in price from inexpensive (a few thousand dollars) to expensive (more than 50,000). The more expensive models are equipped for capillary columns and include a variety of injection options and more sophisticated detectors, such as a mass spectrometer. Packed columns typically cost 50- 200, and the cost of a capillary column is typically 200- 1000. 

Many municipal water sources are chlorinated and contain sufficiently high levels of chlorine so as to be toxic to aquatic life. Chlorine can be removed by passing the water through activated charcoal filters or through the use of sodium thiosulfate metered into the incoming water. Municipal water is usually not used in aquaculture operations that utilize large quantities of water, either continuously or periodically, because of the initial high cost of the water and the cost of pretreatment to remove chlorine. 

Metal organic decomposition (MOD) is a synthesis technique in which metal-containing organic chemicals react with water in a nonaqueous solvent to produce a metal hydroxide or hydrous oxide, or in special cases, an anhydrous metal oxide (7). MOD techniques can also be used to prepare nonoxide powders (8,9). Powders may require calcination to obtain the desired phase. A major advantage of the MOD method is the control over purity and stoichiometry that can be achieved. Two limitations are atmosphere control (if required) and expense of the chemicals. However, the cost of metal organic chemicals is decreasing with greater use of MOD techniques. 

Alcohol Production. Studies to assess the costs of alcohol fuels and to compare the costs to those of conventional fuels contain significant uncertainties. In general, the low cost estimates iadicate that methanol produced on a large scale from low cost natural gas could compete with gasoline when oil prices are around 140/L ( 27/bbl). This comparison does not give methanol any credits for environmental or energy diversification benefits. Ethanol does not become competitive until petroleum prices are much higher. 

Manufacture. Anhydrous ammonium bifluoride containing 0.1% H2O and 93% NH4HF2 can be made by dehydrating ammonium fluoride solutions and by thermally decomposing the dry crystals (7). Commercial ammonium bifluoride, which usually contains 1% NH F, is made by gas-phase reaction of one mole of anhydrous ammonia and two moles of anhydrous hydrogen fluoride (8) the melt that forms is flaked on a cooled dmm. The cost of the material in 1992 was 1.48/kg. 

The alcohols, proprietary denatured ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol, are commonly used for E-type inks. Many E-type inks benefit from the addition of small amounts of ethyl acetate, MEK, or normal propyl acetate to the solvent blends. Aromatic hydrocarbon solvents are used for M-type inks. Polystyrene resins are used to reduce the cost of top lacquers. T-type inks are also reduced with aromatic hydrocarbons. Acryflc resins are used to achieve specific properties for V-type inks. Vehicles containing vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate copolymer resins make up the vinyl ink category. Ketones are commonly used solvents for these inks. 

The process is flexible and permits treatment of a wide variety of plant feed materials. Overall lead recovery is in the range of 96—98%. The operation is, however, cycHc which increases the cost of the sulfur fixation plant, and any 2inc contained in the concentrate is lost in the slag unless slag Aiming is added or already available at the site. 

Solids. Increasing use of bulk cars, especially of covered hopper cars, has accompanied the expansion of the tank-car fleet. The principal drawback of bulk cars is the requirement for limited use, specialized cars, which necessitates a large investment. However, if such investment can be justified, the cost of transportation for dry bulk materials ia hopper cars usually is less than those for goods ia shipping containers. In many instances, such cars are used in closed-loop service that is, they shuttle in unit trains between filling and discharge points. Similar equipment is also used in specialized highway vehicles whose tmck bodies can incorporate dump hoppers and built-in conveyors. 

The use of these sHmicides may result in an appreciable increase in the cost of producing paper. However, thein use often reduces downtime that is caused by slime and, therefore, increases production which more than compensates for the initial cost of the sHmicides. White water systems also often contain proteolytic microorganisms which attack the machine felts and reduce thein useful life. Control of this problem may be accompHshed by treating the felts with a sHmicide foUowed by cleaning with a mild acid (see INDUSTRIALANTIMICROBIALAGENTS). 

The principal benefit of using red aim is its lower cost compared to virgin mbbers. Reclaim typicaUy seUs for 20—30% of the cost of its none-reclaimed counterparts. Reclaimed mbber also imparts some desirable improvements in processing it has much lower nerve than virgin polymers. As a result, compounds containing reclaim have much lower die sweU and extmsion rates. It also increases calender rates and improves flow and mold filling. 

Nonformaldehyde Finishing. The concern for formaldehyde release prompted interest in the development of cross-linking systems that did not contain formaldehyde. A number of systems were investigated but generally these systems seemed to fall short in performance (106,107). For example, l,3-dimethyl-4,5-dihydroxyethyleneurea (DMeDHEU) (5) has been used in Japan since 1974. This same agent has been marketed in the United States and elsewhere, but generally the level of smooth-dry performance is substantially lower than the level achievable with DMDHEU. The cost of dimethylurea also raises the overall cost of DMeDHEU above that of DMDHEU. 

D. Randall and B. Suzanne Shoraka-Blair, An Evaluation of the Cost of Incinerating Wastes Containing PVC, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1994. 

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