Scientific objectives

The merit of observations, especially those made from spacecraft, must be judged in terms of the potenhal increase in knowledge and the probability of success of the measurement. If present theory is at a crossroad, that is, if a hypothesis can be accepted or rejected on the basis of an experiment, then the particular measurement should be considered. However, the potenhal value of an investigation and the probability of success are often difficult to predict. Discoveries simply carmot be scheduled. Furthermore, informahon theory permits specificahon of the amount of information, but it is silent when the quality of informahon is to be quantified. 

A choice of instrumentation always involves trade-off considerations between signal-to-noise ratio, spectral and spatial resolution, telescope aperture, detector characteristics, frequency response, bit rate, and many other parameters. Clearly, the overall scientific objective should dictate the instrumental approach, but, in reality, the chosen solution must also fit within the framework of available resources such as volume, weight, power consumption, time required to complete the design, and cost. Within reason, these limitations are generally also subject to trade-off considerations. To limit ourselves in the presence of a multitude of instrumental approaches consider the Noise-Equivalent-Spectral-Radiance, NESR, of a radio-metric instrument, Eq. (5.8.14), 

The Noise-Equivalent-Power, NEP, of the detector is often a function of wavenumber (see Sections 5.9 to 5.11). The efficiency is expressed by the product i is the system efficiency, which includes the chopper efficiency, for example, and t]2 is the optical efficiency, which includes the transmission characteristics of optical elements. The spectral bandwidth is expressed by the equivalent width, Av. For 

Although the NESR can be measured without great difficulties, it is often instructive to consider the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, which is 

An estimate of the specific intensity, 7(v), of the object to be measured is thereby introduced clearly, it must play a role in optimizing the measurement system. Equation (5.14.2) may be rearranged. 

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The close-up images will allow the landing site to be chosen and the lander will be sent down to the surface in November 2014. The relative approach velocity for the landing will be less than 1 ms-1, which is something like a slow walk. Once there, the scientific objectives will be met by the following series of measurements ... 

Geochemical surveys at the GSC are generally conceived and executed as individual entities, optimised for the local geography and for the scientific objectives of the funding project. The only major exception to this approach is the National Geochemical Reconnaissance (NGR) program, which has been collecting and... 

Studies in Phase IV are all studies (other than routine surveillance) performed after drug approval and related to the approved indication. They are studies that were not considered necessary for approval but are often important for optimizing the drug s use. They may be of any type but should have valid scientific objectives. Commonly conducted studies include additional drug-drug interaction, dose-response or safety studies, and studies designed to support use under the approved indication, for instance, mortality/morbidity studies, epidemiological studies. 

Selection of subjects is based on scientific objectives and not on whether the subject is privileged or vulnerable, or because of convenience (Exhibit 6.2). Inclusion and exclusion criteria are well thought out and designed solely to satisfy the scientific basis being put forward. There must be documented evidence to support the choice of selection criteria. 

It would be preferable, of course, if individually and collectively, scientists were more forthcoming with explanations and justifications of their choices of values. But it is difficult to advance strong arguments against their choices if research is practiced only as the asymptotic pursuit of "pure truth" and if the choices are not misrepresented as objective and scientific. However, as it is funded and practiced currently, scientifc research deals almost exclusively with societally important study systems and therefore has practical as well as "purely scientific" objectives. Thus, it is proper to require that decision rules be adequately explained and justified in their societal context and even to look with a jaundiced eye at misrepresentations of value choices as "objective" or "scientific" for whatever reason and in any research context. 

Hospitality may be offered at events for professional and scientific purposes provided it is reasonable in level and subordinate to the scientific objective of the meeting. Again, it caimot be extended to persons other than healthcare professionals. 

Psychotropic medication is meant to be used therapeutically in patients with serious emotional problems, mental disorders or with deficits in neurological or cognitive functioning. What kind of useful information can one possibly expect from experiments on subjects who do not suffer from similar symptoms or disorders As will be seen in this chapter there is indeed useful information originating from such studies, whose scientific objectives can be one or more of the following ... 

The IOM committees should discuss all that is known about cancer rates in human populations highly exposed to dioxin and the capacity of epidemiologic studies to detect dioxin-associated cancers if they do occur. I am convinced that this task, if done with scientific objectivity, would weaken any interpretations that dioxin causes human cancers. 

The SCIAMACHY utilises near simultaneous limb and nadir measurements of the scattered light in the atmosphere between 240 and 2400 nm to determine the amounts and distributions of tropospheric constituents. The target species and parameters are 03, N02, N20, BrO, CO, H20, S02, CO, C02, CH4, aerosols temperature and pressure. For the long-lived gases such as N20, CH4 and C02 the scientific objective is to measure the small gradients, which define source and sink regions. 

These early successes with carbonyl complexes of rhenium encouraged me to undertake systematic research on the carbon monoxide chemistry of the heavy transition metals at our Munich Institute during the period 1939-45, oriented towards purely scientific objectives. The ideas of W. Manchot, whereby in general only dicarbonyl halides of divalent platinum metals should exist, were soon proved inadequate. In addition to the compounds [Ru(CO)2X2] (70), we were able to prepare, especially from osmium, numerous di- and monohalide complexes with two to four molecules of CO per metal atom (29). From rhodium and iridium (28) we obtained the very stable rhodium(I) complexes [Rh(CO)2X]2, as well as the series Ir(CO)2X2, Ir(CO)3X, [Ir(CO)3]j (see Section VII,A). With this work the characterization of carbonyl halides of most of the transition metals, including those of the copper group, was completed. 

Each study component has an ethical aspect. The ethical aspects of a clinical trial cannot be separated from the scientific objectives. Segregation of ethical issues from the full range of study design components demonstrates a flaw in understanding the fundamental nature of research involving human subjects. Compartmentalization of ethical issues is inconsistent with a well-run trial. Ethical and scientific considerations are intertwined (p. 4). 

The German public funded project NEMESIS focuses on the design and development of microreactors for the synthesis of ionic liquids at pilot scale [52], Scientific objectives are to increase the yield of the corresponding ionic liquid as well as to decrease reaction time from hours up to days currently. Ionic liquids, a new innovative class of materials, are synthesized using microreaction technology. Possible application fields are their use as electrolytes for the elaborate deposition of metals. A concept for regeneration of the electrolyte is also considered. 

To its credit, the Voet and Voet text contains a disclaimer at the beginning of the standard discussion of a Stanley Miller-like origin-of-life scenario, which states that there are valid scientific objections to this scenarios... 

There are a great number of leaching tests. The experimental conditions and interpretation of results are dependent on the application context and scientific objectives, as follows ... 

Scientific objectives. The three most common are determination of the available release potential (this notion aims to evaluate the total elementary content of pollutant available for leaching), study of solubilities at equilibrium (these tests which are conducted on crushed waste are carried out either at controlled pH or by addition of given quantities of acid when measuring the acid neutralization capacity, ANC), and assessment of the release dynamics (these tests are carried out on monolithic samples over long periods from one to three months or more) [33-36]. 

The Steering Committee appraises the progress of the project annually, approves new members and makes adjustments to the scientific objectives of the project. Programmers maintain ADAS software on participant laboratory workstations over the Internet. New releases, updates and corrections are distributed and installed approximately every six months at the participant laboratories. The ADAS Project holds a workshop annually for sharing of experience in the use of ADAS and for co-ordinating scientific development of ADAS amongst the participants. By this method, a unique facility for the... 

It occasionally happens in making multiple measurements that one value differs from the rest considerably more than they differ from one another. Should the discordant value be rejected before an average is taken This question provides one of the most severe tests of yom scientific objectivity, for you may (indeed, you should) reject any measurement, whether concordant or discordant, if there is a valid reason to believe that it is defective. 

In the end, the question of the authenticity of the Shroud as the burial cloth of Jesus of Nazareth remains open-ended. We should all keep in mind that science is really not in a position to ever prove categorically that the Shroud is authentic (i.e., Jesus burial cloth). We have, however, examined the probability that the Shroud was artistically produced and find it improbable. The question is left so that those who wish to believe it authentic are not hindered with scientific objection to doing so. However, without proof of authenticity, those who choose to believe the Shroud is not authentic are also free to do so without scientific objection, provided they do not assert a production mechanism that is excluded by the information now available. 

This chapter describes the design and performance of the UOR Mark 2, the data logger, some specially developed sensors, and some of the different system configurations and sensor suites employed to meet various scientific objectives. Results are presented from some of the different modes of deployment, and enhanced interpretations of the data are discussed with simple physical models. 

Scientific objectives should be the primary focus when arranging such meetings, but this does not preclude entertainment and hospitality features. 

Research misconduct strikes at the very heart of scientific objectivity. It raises doubts about the integrity of the science and our trust in the work of others. We must be able to believe in the reliability of scientific research. 

CUT). Founded in 1974 and formerly called the Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology. Dedicated to the scientific, objective study of tax issues associated with the manufacture, use, and disposal of selected commodity chemicals and the dissemination of information collected. It is located at 6 Davis Drive, Box 12137 RTP, NC 27709-2137. Website http //www.ciit.org... 

The major scientific objectives of IMPROVE in the area of software engineering, though timely and relevant from a technological point of view, were, however, not always in line with the current business objectives and the technological road maps of the software industries. Furthermore, research in IMPROVE resulted in software prototypes to illustrate the advanced functionality and to demonstrate the proof-of-concept. This software has not been designed to be directly integrated in the software product portfolio of any vendor. 

The globally widespread brine shrimp Artemia is intensively studied in view of both fundamental scientific objectives (ecological, genetic, evolutional, paleontological)... 

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