Research strategies

TP Techniques Infrared TEM 5EM UV-vis NMR Raman ESR EXAF5 XANES EDX Mossbauer Calorimetry ISS / LEIS Neutron Scattering SIMS 

ISS ion-scattering spectroscopy LEIS low-energy ion scattering SEM scanning electron microscopy SIMS Secondary ion mass spectrometry TEM transmission electron microscopy TP temperature-programmed XANES X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy. 

Bearing in mind that the aim of characterization in fundamental catalysis is to obtain information concerning the active surface under reaction conditions in 

Reaction conditions XRD, TP techniques Infrared and Raman EXAFS, XANES, AFM Mossbauer, ESR, NMR Infrared TP techniques STM,AFM 

Vacuum XPS, SIMS, SNMS LEIS, RBS, TEM, SEM All surface science techniques 

The other approach is to study real catalysts with in situ techniques such as infrared and Mossbauer spectroscopy, EXAFS and XRD, either under reaction conditions, or, as is more often done, under a controlled environment after quenching the reaction. 

The in situ techniques, however, are usually not sufficiently specific to yield the desired atom-by-atom characterization of the surface. Often they determine overall properties of the particles. The situation is schematically represented in Fig. 1.6. 

Spectroscopy, too, is by no means simple. Quick and easy experiments in catalyst characterization hardly exist. The correct interpretation of spectra requires experience based on practice and a sound theoretical background in spectroscopy, in physical chemistry and often in solid state physics as well. Intensive cooperation between spectroscopists and experts in catalysis is the best way to ensure meaningful and correctly interpreted results. 

It is good to realize that, although many techniques undoubtedly provide valuable results on catalysts, the most useful information almost always comes from a combination of several characterization techniques. The case studies in Chapter 9 present a few examples where this approach has been remarkably successful. 

In conclusion, a successful outcome to any research on catalysts is most likely to be achieved by using a combination of spectroscopic techniques applied under conditions as close as possible to those of the reaction in which the catalyst operates and also by using an integrated approach in which experts from catalysis and spectroscopy work closely together. 

In principle, two approaches can be adopted for fundamental investigations of the relations between catalytic properties on one hand, and catalyst composition and structure on the other. The first is to model the catalytic surface, for example with that of a single crystal. By using the appropriate combination of surface spectroscopies, the desired characterization on the atomic scale is certainly possible in favourable cases. The disadvantage, however, is that although one may be able to study the catalytic properties of such samples under realistic conditions (pressures of 1 atm or higher), most of the characterization is necessarily carried out in ultra high vacuum, and not under reaction conditions. 

The second approach is to study real catalysts with in situ techniques such as Infrared and Mossbauer spectroscopy, EXAFS and XRD, under reaction conditions, or, as is more often done, under a controlled environment after quenching of the reaction. The in situ techniques, however, are not sufficiently surface specific to yield the desired atom by atom characterization of the surface. At best they determine the composition of the particles. The situation is schematically represented in Fig. 10.22. 

The dilemma is thus that investigations of real catalysts under relevant conditions by in situ techniques give little information on the surface of the catalyst, and that the techniques which are surface sensitive can often only be applied on model surfaces under vacuum. Bridging the gap between UHV and high pressures and between the surfaces of single crystals and of real catalysts is an important issue in catalysis. 

---

The use of radioactive tracers was pioneered by Georg von Hevesy, a Hungarian physical chemist, who received the Nobel Prize in 1943 for his work on radioactive indicators (1). Radioisotopes have become indispensable components of most medical and life science research strategies, and in addition the technology is the basis for numerous industries focused on the production and detection of radioactive tracers. Thousands of radioactive tracers have been synthesized and are commercially available. These are used worldwide in tens of thousands of research laboratories. 

National Academy of Sciences, Govemment-University-Industry Research Roundtable. What Research Strategies Best Serve the National Interest in a Time of Budgetary Stress Report of a Conference. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press, 1986. 

EPA (2007). Sustainable Research Strategy. Office of Research and Development, LfS Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, http //www.epa.gov/Sustamability/ pdfs/EPA-12057 SRS R4-l.pdf. (accessed 25.10.10). 

The research strategies recommended by the USDA Research Planning Conference for EPA-related activities include studies ons (1) allelopathic effects on environment in terms of allelochemical persistence, activity and effectiveness, (2) ecological consequences due to alle-lochemicals, and (3) potential risks to human and animal health (37). In addition to these approaches, we should also pursue studies toward understanding the effect of ccrmercial allelochemicals, alone or in combination with other chemicals such as pesticides, on human health, safety and environment. 

Costa E, Guigotti A. Benzodiazepines on trial a research strategy for their rehabilitation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1996 17 192-200. 

Price, Donald D. and Howard I. Fields, The Contribution of Desire and Expectation to Placebo Analgesia Implications for New Research Strategies , in The Placebo Effect An Interdisciplinary Exploration, edited by Anne Harrington, Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press, 1997 pp- ii7-37... 

Hatzinger M (2000). Neuropeptides and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system Review of recent research strategies in depression. World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 1, 105-111. 

Wimsatt, W. (1980), Reductionistic research strategies and their biases in the units of selection controversy , in T. Nickles (Ed.), Scientific Discovery, Volume IJ Historical and Scientific Case Studies, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 213-259-... 

Schaffner, K. F. (1999), Complexity and research strategies in behavioral psychiatric genetics , in R. A. Carson and M. A. Rothstein (Eds), Behavioral Genetics The Clash of Culture and Biology, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, pp. 61-88. 

US EPA (1999) Waste research strategy. EPA Office of Research and Develope-ment, Washington DC. 

In the second research strategy, plant viruses have been utilized as pliable genetic platforms for protein expression. Three formats have been developed, and the one that has undergone the most extensive evaluation is the display of epitopes on the surface of the virus as fusions with the viral coat protein. This epitope-display system... 

Freedman, D. X. (1969) Research strategies with psychotomimetic drugs. In Psychochemical Research in Man, edited by R. J. Mandell and M. P. Mandell, pp. 89-99. Academic Press, New York. 

Reardon T (1995) Sustainability issues for agricultural research strategies in the semi-arid tropics focus on the Sahel. Agric Sys 48 345-359... 

Heterogeneous Catalysis Aim of Catalyst Characterization Spectroscopic Techniques Research Strategies... 

Based on the observed problems in the measurement of safety in the chemical process industry, as outlined in the previous Chapter, additional research into this area is needed to provide companies with better indicators of possible accidents. In this Chapter the research methodology used to gain a more complete understanding of this measurement problem , is presented. This Chapter starts by discussing the focus, type and methodology of the research process. Then the research strategy and methods will be discussed to present the design structure of the complete research. 

In this Chapter emphasis will be put on the planning process while the execution process will be addressed later. In the next sub-Sections the focus of the research, the type of research, the research methodology, the research strategies and methods used will be presented. 

In the Introduction, we presented a brief overview of our research interests and research strategies. A more detailed account has been published, which also includes a description of our early work using SPME/GC-MS, the specifics on our GC-MS instrumentation, and a typical set of GC-MS operating conditions (Goodwin, Rasmussen, Schulte, Brown, Davis, Dill, Dowdy, Hicks, Morshedi, Mwanza and Loizi 2005). 

To determine the order of reaction. It is always good research strategy to change only one variable at a time. That way, the measured response (if any) can be attributed unambiguously to the change in that variable. And the variable of choice in this example will be one or other of the two initial concentrations. 

For several years application of MRE to biological tissues has been an active area of research. Strategies either turns towards excised tissues (ex vivo) or towards living animals or humans (in vivo). The former allows more detailed studies of strain-stress relationships and thus are important for the characterization of heterogeneous biological systems. From a biological point-of-view in vivo results might appear more relevant. However they are difficult to obtain and one must keep in mind biases that could arise from incomplete or noisy data. 

GPA research is proposed, financed, and conducted on an individual project basis. The GPA research strategy is normally to measure only sufficient data to allow parameter determination in models. GPA seldom attempts definitive system studies. GPA research is directed by an Enthalpy Steering Committee and a Phase Equilibrium Committee. Dr. L. D. Wiener chairs the Enthalpy Committee. Dr. K. H. Kiigren chairs the Equilibrium Committee. Both committees are divisions of Technical Section F chaired by M. A. 

Tsuji JS, Maynard AD, Howard PC, James JT, Lam CW, Warheit DB, Santamaria AB (2006) Research strategies for safety evaluation of nanomaterials, part IV Risk assessment of nanoparticles. Toxicol. Sci. 89 42-50. 

Working on case studies with the objective of comprehending correlations and implementing in hypotheses (hypothesis generation) is a research strategy that is entirely appropriate for the present status of itmovation research. As such an approach to research necessarily requires a rather qualitative procedure and is based only on a few case studies, from the outset there was no claim to verification in respect of quantitative significance. 

---