Radiation handling radioactive materials

Limitation. The radiation dose received by the personnel handling radioactive material will never exceed the legally established dose limits. It has to be taken into account that such limitations do not apply to patients receiving radiopharmaceuticals as either diagnostic or therapeutic agents. But nuclear medicine physicians, nuclear physicists, and radiopharmacists must ensure that the amount of radiopharmaceutical administered to a patient is adapted to his or her disease and optimized to obtained the intended result. 

Studies of the coordination chemistry of the actinides have been limited by a number of factors - the care needed in handling radioactive materials and the possibility of damage to human tissue from the radiation toxicity (especially Pu) the very small quantities available and very short half-lives of the later actinides radiation and heating damage to solutions and radiation damage (defects and dislocations) to crystals. 

One of the most common topics asked of those who work with the actinides relates to handling procedures. The radioactive nature of these elements does require the use of special facilities, processes, and precautions. However, working with radioactive elements in subcritical quantities is as safe, if not safer, than handling many of the toxic chemicals found in a typical synthetic laboratory. The primary advantage in handling radioactive material is the ease with which these elements can be detected. Unlike other toxic chemicals, for example, lead, thallium, arsenic, and so on, a simple survey (seconds) with a radiation detector will show if containment of the material has been lost, where it is, and approximately how much is present. With appropriate monitoring, virtually no uptake of radioactive material occurs, and if any personnel contamination does occur, it is quickly detected and treated. 

In handling a radioactive material, it is basically important not to hold a radiation source directly with the hand. Handle it by remote operation as much as possible. Use forceps, tongs or similar devices. In handling radioactive materials of curie level or higher, remote controlling devices such as a master-slave type manipulator must be used. 

Environmental monitoring means the measurement of radiation and radioactivity outside the boundaries of installations operating nuclear power plants, research reactors, fuel reprocessing plant, accelerators or handling radioactivity materials including nuclear fuels or radioactive sources. 

Since radiation may be hazardous, it is important that individuals who handle ionizing radiation follow certain rules to avoid accidents. The official rules to be followed by all persons licensed to handle radioactive materials have been studied and proposed by such bodies as the ICRP and the National Research Council (NRC), which is an arm of the National Academy of Sciences. The proposed standards are adopted and enforced by federal agencies such as the... 

Occupationally exposed individuals are commonly known as "rad workers" and the training courses one takes to become a rad worker are usually referred to as "rad worker I" and "rad worker II" depending on the level of training provided. To be considered an occupationally exposed individual, a worker s job duties must involve exposure to radiation or a radioactive material. They must also be trained as required by 10 CFR 19.12 on how to properly handle radioactive material or work in areas where radiation exposure is possible and the proper precautions and procedures to follow. Because risks are involved, it is necessary that those exposed be knowledgeable about those risks and, more importantly, know how to minimize them to perform their jobs in a safe and effective maimer. Dose limits for occupational workers apply for all occupational dose received in a given year, even if it was from multiple employers. 

When all else fails, a liquid level in a vessel can be found with a portable gamma-ray source and a Geiger counter-type radiation receiver. Most refineries have personnel licensed to handle radioactive materials in connection with X-ray inspection of process piping. Their equipment can be used, along with the proper radiation receiver, to locate a liquid level in a vessel accurately. Obviously, this is a procedure that will not be used routinely. Note that this can create a potential safety hazard to operators unfamiliar with the dangers of exposure to radioactive materials. 

It is widely accepted by the scientific community that the risk of negative effects occurs on the health of workers as a result of their exposure to low doses of ionizing radiation. Sometimes this exposure results from the proximity or handling radioactive materials that occur naturally in the environment. It is therefore of utmost importance to identify these radioactive materials, assess their danger to exposed workers and to take measures to protect them against this exposure. 

Caution Handle all radioactive substances according to the radiation safety regulations instituted at each facility approved to handle such materials. Use adequate precautions to protect personal safety and the environment. Dispose of radioactive waste only by following approved guidelines. 

For many of the analytical techniques discussed below, it is necessary to have a source of X-rays. There are three ways in which X-rays can be produced in an X-ray tube, by using a radioactive source, or by the use of synchrotron radiation (see Section 12.6). Radioactive sources consist of a radioactive element or compound which spontaneously produces X-rays of fixed energy, depending on the decay process characteristic of the radioactive material (see Section 10.3). Nuclear processes such as electron capture can result in X-ray (or y ray) emission. Thus many radioactive isotopes produce electromagnetic radiation in the X-ray region of the spectrum, for example 3He, 241Am, and 57Co. These sources tend to produce pure X-ray spectra (without the continuous radiation), but are of low intensity. They can be used as a source in portable X-ray devices, but can be hazardous to handle because they cannot be switched off. In contrast, synchrotron radiation provides an... 

The beneficial use of radiation is one of the best examples of how careful characterization of the hazard is essential for its safe use. A radioactive substance can be safely stored or transported if appropriately contained. Depending on the characteristics of the radioactive material, it can be safely handled by using appropriate shielding and safety precautions. Laboratory workers usually wear special badges that quantify radiation exposure to ensure that predetermined levels of exposure, which are considered safe, are not exceeded. Unfortunately, after more than 50 years, society has not yet been able to design and implement a safe way to dispose of radioactive waste. The hazardous properties of radiation are explored further in a subsequent chapter. 

Nuclear radiation is focused on harmful tissue, such as a cancerous tumor, to selectively kill or shrink the tissue in a technique known as radiation therapy. This application of nuclear radiation has saved millions of lives—a clear-cut example of the benefits of nuclear technology. The inset shows the international symbol indicating an area where radioactive material is being handled or produced. 

Radioactive minerals emit natural radiation, which can be hazardous to organisms. They are also poisonous and toxic as dust. Radioactive materials can be found in a variety of collections, but most are associated with minerals, rocks, and fossils. If handled and stored appropriately, hazards from radiation can be minimized. 

In any case, and albeit the different regulation in different countries, as a general principle only licensed personnel working in an authorized facility are authorized to handle and use radiopharmaceuticals. Facilities and procedures are subject to periodic inspection by official radiation safety officers that control production and handling of radioactive material, its transportation, proper use, as well as personnel dosimetry and radioactive waste disposal. 

Independent of which regulation applies at a national level to extemporaneous or magistral preparation of radiopharmaceuticals, the patients should be entitled to expect that these products are prepared accurately, are suitable for use, and will meet the expected standards for quality assurance. Pharmacists involved in this kind of production must ensure that they and any other staff involved are competent to undertake the tasks to be performed and that the requisite facilities and equipment are available [11], As for other radiopharmaceutical production, systems must be in place to ensure the operator safety due to handling of radioactive materials. All involved staff must have sufficient training in radiation safety issues, in addition to training in GMP. 

To attain the above objectives of the Concepts based on the priorities of protecting life and health of the present and future hmnan generations as well as the environment against noxious impacts of radiation somces, nuclear materials and radioactive substances, observance of the following main international principles during work organization and direct handling of radiation somces, nuclear materials and radioactive substances is mandatory ... 

Like all radioactive materials, promethium must be handled with great care. The radiation it produces can have serious health effects on humans and animals. 

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