Projectiles, chemicals

Despite attempts in the late nineteenth century to ban the use of chemicals in warfare (the Hague convention of 1899 failed because it related only to the use of chemicals in projectiles), chemical warfare was used extensively during World War I and produced casualties who were recognisably suffering from toxic rather than physical trauma. Some had both. It was the use of chemicals in warfare and the multiple short- and long-term effects on body systems that pointed the way to the need to approach trauma from exposure to chemicals in the same systematic way as for physical trauma. 

Conduct exploratory and engineering activities in the methods and technology of manufacture as applied to assigned commodities and their components, materials and ancillary equipment except projectile metal parts which are the responsibility of Frank ford Arsenal, and specified elements of chemical items which are the re-sponsibility of Edge wood Arsenal. This is to include support of plant/facilities modernization within ARMCOM, abatement of environmental contamination caused by manufacturing processes and exploitation of automation techniques... 

Projectile, 8 Inch, M424A1 Loading Assembly Projectile, 8 Inch, XM509 Metal Parts Assembly Projectile, 8 Inch, Chemical Agent Vx, M426,... 

The experiments are conceptually very straightforward although often more complicated in practice. A chosen target material is irradiated with neutrons (or other projectiles). Following the irradiation the target may, if desired, be thermally or otherwise treated (annealed) to effect solid-state reactions, after which the sample is dissolved and chemically processed in order to separate the various expected products and to measure their yields. 

Compressed gases, therefore, present a unique hazard from their potential physical and chemical dangers. Unless cylinders are secured they may topple over, cause injury to operators, become damaged themselves and cause contents to leak. If the regulator shears off, the cylinder may rocket like a projectile or torpedo dangerously around the workplace. Other physical hazards stem from the high pressure of a cylinder s contents, e.g. accidental application of a compressed gas/air hose or jet onto an open cut or wound, whereby the gas can enter the tissue or bloodstream, is particularly dangerous. 

A close analogy to the localized surface interaction can be found in the field of chemical kinetics, namely, in the spectator stripping mechanism (5, 6) of the gas reactions, as evidenced by the recent crossed-molecular-beams experiments. Here the projectile seems to meet with only a part of the target molecule (that one to be transferred), while the rest of the target behaves as a spectator, in a sense not taking part in the reaction. 

Nevertheless, the introduction of time-of-flight (ToF) analysers for SIMS analyses at the beginning of the 1980s, as well as the recent development of liquid ion sources delivering cluster projectiles now permit the analysis of organic materials with high sensitivity and selectivity. Moreover, thanks to its excellent lateral resolution (in the order of micrometres), and its minimal sample preparation, ToF-SIMS has become the reference technique for chemical imaging by mass spectrometry. 

A major contribution from chemistry and chemical engineering has been the development of materials with important military applications. Chemists and chemical engineers, working with experts from areas such as electronics, materials science, and physics, have contributed to such developments as new explosives and propellants, reactive armor (a complex material with an explosive layer that can reduce the penetration of an incoming projectile), and stealth materials that reduce the detectability of aircraft by radar. 

The military uses of HCN were first realized by Napoleon III, but it was not until World War I (WW I) that this application received widespread consideration. About 3.6 million kg of hydrogen cyanide were manufactured by France as a chemical weapon and used in WW I in various mixtures called Manganite and Bincennite, although its use was not highly successful because of limitations in projectile size and other factors. During WW II, the Japanese were armed with 50-kg HCN bombs, and the United States had 500-kg bombs. More than 500,000 kg of HCN chemical weapons were produced during WW II by Japan, the United States, and the Soviet Union, but it is not known to what extent these weapons were used in that conflict (Way 1981). 

Powell, J.G. Fragmentation Characterization profile for Chemical Filled Munltlons-M23 Land Mine, 115MM Rocket Warheads and 8-lnch Projectiles, Naval Surface Weapons Center, April 1983. 

Event 10 Explosion—Mononitrotoluene. First Chemical Corporation, Pascagoula, Mississippi (October 13, 2002). Three workers injured fires, projectiles, and other damage to the plant and plant equipment (HighBeam 2008). 

PA PCP PCR PFA PGB PHA PID PLC PMACWA PMD POTW ppm PRH PRR psi psig PTFE PVDF PWS picric acid pentachlorophenol propellant collection reactor perfluoroalkoxy product gas burner preliminary hazards analysis proportional integral differential controller programmable logic control Program Manager for Assembled Chemical Weapons Assessment projectile mortar demilitarization (machine) publicly owned treatment works parts per million projectile rotary hydrolyzer propellant removal room pounds per square inch pounds per square inch gauge polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) polyvinylidene fluoride projectile washout system... 

The chemical agent, energetic materials, and metal parts are separated using a modified version of the Army s baseline system disassembly process. Rockets are punched, drained of agent, and disassembled. Projectiles are disassembled first and then drained of agent. 

In summary, preliminary experiments have demonstrated that the efficiency and outcome of electron ionization is influenced by molecular orientation. That is, the magnitude of the electron impact ionization cross section depends on the spatial orientation of the molecule widi respect to the electron projectile. The ionization efficiency is lowest for electron impact on the negative end of the molecular dipole. In addition, the mass spectrum is orientation-dependent for example, in the ionization of CH3CI the ratio CHjCriCHj depends on the molecular orientation. There are both similarities in and differences between the effect of orientation on electron transfer (as an elementary step in the harpoon mechanism) and electron impact ionization, but there is a substantial effect in both cases. It seems likely that other types of particle interactions, for example, free-radical chemistry and ion-molecule chemistry, may also exhibit a dependence on relative spatial orientation. The information emerging from these studies should contribute one more perspective to our view of particle interactions and eventually to a deeper understanding of complex chemical and biological reaction mechanisms. 

A Modified Baseline Incineration Process for Mustard Projectiles at Pueblo Chemical Depot (August 2001)... 

It was detected by Urey, Brickwedde and Murphy in 1932. It occurs in all natural compounds of hydrogen including water, as well as in free hydrogen molecules at the ratio of about one part per 6,000 parts hydrogen. The principal application of deuterium is in tracer studies for measuring rates and kinetics of chemical reactions. It also is used in thermonuclear reactions and as a projectile in cyclotrons for bombardment of atomic nuclei to synthesize isotopes of several transuranium elements. Deuterium oxide, D2O, or heavy water is used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors. 

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