Oil and, refineries

Various types of non-hydrocarbon compounds occur in crude oils and refinery streams. The most important are the organic sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen compounds. Traces of metallic compounds are also found in all crudes. The presence of these impurities is harmful and may cause problems to certain catalytic processes. Fuels having high sulfur and nitrogen levels cause pollution problems in addition to the corrosive nature of their oxidization products. 

If allocations were set by industry, such as a uniform cap for the whole power industry (which represents some 40% of the American carbon emission), it would probably double the cost of electricity in locations where electricity is made from coal while representing a windfall for the nuclear power industry. If caps were set as a function of carbon emission, it is not clear how "indirect" emissions would be handled. For example, the oil and refinery industry is directly responsible for only 4% of the total carbon emission, but it fuels a transportation industry, which is responsible for 35%. 

Use In a wide range of petroleum products including lubricants, industrial oils, and refinery streams. 

Land-farming is the application of oil and refinery waste to land where it degrades. This practice is now banned in most jurisdictions since many oil components do not break down and contaminants, such as metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons, are carried away from the site, often in groundwater. 

Steam cracking of natural gas liquids, naphtha or gas oil and refinery off-gases. 

After arriving in Chattanooga, he had a good fortune to meet Mercer Reynolds, president of Lookout Oil and Refinery Company and Paul Kreusi, president of both the America Lava Corp. and Southern Ferro Alloy Corp. These entrepreneurs and their plants provided the stage for Murray Raney s invention. It was my... 

Reserves and resources of fossU fuels, renewable energy, natural gas and other technical gases, oil and refinery products, coal and coal products, renewable raw materials, and economic and social aspects of (future) energy consumption and mix. 

It is estimated that annually some 6 million t crude oil and refinery products are introduced into the sea [6]. Of this amount, probably about 40% is crude oil (natural influences, in-shore production, tanker accidents and transportation by tanker) and about 60% are further processed petroleum fractions (refineries, rivers, town sewage, transportation means, precipitation from the atmosphere) [6]. This annual emission into the seas can, in addition to other fractions, correspond to about 75,000 t benzene, 480,000 t toluene, 560,0001 xylenes, and at least 40,0001 naphthalenes. 

This category comprises conventional LPG (commercial propane and butane), home-heating oil and heavy fuels. All these materials are used to produce thermal energy in equipment whose size varies widely from small heaters or gas stoves to refinery furnaces. Without describing the requirements in detail for each combustion system, we will give the main specifications for each of the different petroleum fuels. 

The measurement of a crude oil s viscosity at different temperatures is particularly important for the calculation of pressure drop in pipelines and refinery piping systems, as well as for the specification of pumps and exchangers. 

The flowscheme of the typical refinery during the period 1950-1970 was essentially focused on the production of gasoline, diesel oil, domestic heating oil and industrial fuel-oil. Except for heavy naphtha, the product streams underwent no deep conversion. 

Processing heavy oils and bitumens represents a challenge for the current refinery processes, because heavy oils and bitumens poison the metal catalysts used m the refineries. In our research at the Loker Institute, we found the use of superacid catalysts, which are less sensitive to heavy oils, an attractive solution to their processing, particularly hydrocracking. 

Table 3 Hsts the refinery product yields in North America and worldwide, illustrating patterns of consumption. The United States refines about 25% of the world s cmde oil, and because of its declining oil reserves, must import additional cmde oil.

Hexane refers to the straight-chain hydrocarbon, C H branched hydrocarbons of the same formula are isohexanes. Hexanes include the branched compounds, 2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2-dimethylbutane, 2,3-dimethylbutane, and the straight-chain compound, / -hexane. Commercial hexane is a narrow-boiling mixture of these compounds with methylcyclopentane, cyclohexane, and benzene (qv) minor amounts of and hydrocarbons also may be present. Hydrocarbons in commercial hexane are found chiefly in straight-mn gasoline which is produced from cmde oil and natural gas Hquids (see Gasoline AND OTHER MOTOR fuels Gas,natural). Smaller volumes occur in certain petroleum refinery streams. 

Refinery Production. Refinery propylene is formed as a by-product of fluid catalytic cracking of gas oils and, to a far lesser extent, of thermal processes, eg, coking. The total amount of propylene produced depends on the mix of these processes and the specific refinery product slate. For example, in the United States, refiners have maximized gasoline production. This results in a higher level of propylene production than in Europe, where proportionally more heating oil is produced. 

The largest use of NMP is in extraction of aromatics from lube oils. In this appHcation, it has been replacing phenol and, to some extent, furfural. Other petrochemical uses involve separation and recovery of aromatics from mixed feedstocks recovery and purification of acetylenes, olefins, and diolefins removal of sulfur compounds from natural and refinery gases and dehydration of natural gas. 

In oil and gas refinery appHcations, titanium is used as protection in environments of H2S, SO2, CO2, NH, caustic solutions, steam, and cooling water. It is used in heat-exchanger condensers for the fractional condensation of cmde hydrocarbons, NH, propane, and desulfurization products using seawater or brackish water for cooling. 

The Nelson Refinery Constmction Index, which appears monthly in the Oil and Gas Journal, is a weighted constmction materials and labor index. 

Table 9-42 presents information on some cost indices for the United States. Engineering News-Record updates its construction-cost index in March, June, September, and December. The Oil and Gas Journal gives the Nelson-Farrar refinery indices in the first issue of each quarter. The Chemical Engineering plant-cost index and Marshall and Swift equipment-cost index are given in each issue of the pubhcation Chemical Engineering. Derivation of the base values is referred to in the respective publications. 

For petroleum crude oil and lubricating oils the range is from 250 to 1250 hhl/(ha year) with a value of 400 hhl/(ha year) being typical. A typical value for general refinery oils and wastes would he about 150 hhl/(ha year). 

In the formulation of PVC compounds it is not uncommon to replace some of the plasticiser with an extender, a material that is not in itself a plasticiser but which can be tolerated up to a given concentration by a polymer-true plasticiser system. These materials, such as chlorinated waxes and refinery oils, are generally of lower solubility parameter than the true plasticisers and they do not appear to interact with the polymer. However, where the solubility parameter of a mixture of plasticiser and extender is within unity of that of the polymer the mixture of three components will be compatible. It may be shown that... 

It has already been mentioned in Chapter 5 that plasticisers are often replaced in part by extenders, materials which in themselves are not plasticisers but which can be tolerated up to a given concentration in a polymer-plasticiser system. Refinery oils and chlorinated waxes are widely used in PVC for this purpose with the prime aim of reducing cost although the chlorinated waxes may also be of use as flame retardants (q.v.). 

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