Low-income

Reviews on the occurrence, biochemical basis, and treatment of lead toxicity in children (11) and workers (3,12,13) have been pubhshed. Approximately 17% of all preschool children in the United States have blood lead levels >10 //g/dL. In inner city, low income minority children the prevalence of blood lead levels >10 //g/dL is 68%. It has been estimated that over two million American workers are at risk of exposure to lead as a result of their work. PubHc health surveillance data document that each year thousands of American workers occupationally exposed to lead develop signs and symptoms indicative of... 

All of the world s major economies, as well as scores of smaller, low-income nations, rely mainly on hydrocarbons. Crude oil now supplies two-fifths of the world s primary energy (Table 1). There are distinct consumption patterns in the shares of light and hea vy oil products the United States burns more than 40 percent of all its liquid fuels as gasoline, Japan just a fifth and the residual fuel oil accounts for nearly a third of Japanese use, but for less than 3 percent of the U.S. total. Small countries of the Persian Gulf have the highest per capita oil consumption (more than 5 t a year in the United Arab Emirates and in Qatar) the U.S. rate is more than 2.5 t a year European means arc around 1 t China s mean is about 120 kg, and sub-Saharan Africa is well below 100 kg per capita. 

In the United States, outside of the core areas of older major cities, transit has become the transport of last resort. There is a substantial social stigma attached to using transit, due to the low income levels of transit patrons in most U.S. cities. Transit customers also sometimes fear their vulnerability to crime, especially while waiting at bus stops. 

Competition can promote efficiency and lower average prices for electricity. However, there is no guarantee that all customers will benefit equally from lower prices. Larger commercial and industrial customers generally have the wherewithal to obtain better rates in competitive markets than do smaller residential customers. Because of fewer options, low-income households are especially vulnerable to competitive markets for electricity. 

The shaking and continuous filters are regenerative, but there is a third group usually associated with ventilation work rather than dust and fume. These are throwaway filters, which, as the name implies, means that when they become too caked with dust to operate correctly the filters are removed and replaced with new ones. They will only handle low incoming dust burdens, but their efficiencies are the highest of any filter. Typical applications are fresh air input plants, clean-room filtration and nuclear processes. 

Parasitic diseases, such as trypanosomiasis, malaria, and leishmaniasis, affect himdreds of millions people around the world, mainly in underdeveloped countries. They are also the most common opportunistic infections that affect patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Globally, malaria occupies the first place, but in Latin America, Chagas disease (American Trypanosomiasis) is the most relevant parasitic disease that produces morbidity and mortahty in low-income individuals. 

The mean maternal age for the 12 mothers included in this study was 25.8 years, with a range of 20 to 31 years. Mother s race was 75 percent black, 17 percent white, and 8 percent Hispanic. All were low income. Eighty-three percent of the women were multiparas with an average of 5.2 previous pregnancies and 2.7 live births. 

Miranda, J., Chung, J. Y., Green, B. L., Krupnick, J. et al. (2003). Treating depression in predominantly low-income young minority women. JAMA, 290, 57-65. 

The primary feature of the projected population growth is the increase of the third world from 41/2 to 8 billion people in the next half century. History has shown that the key measure of population welfare and population stabilization is energy use. Today, people in the high birthrate, poverty stricken, low income nations use only a small fraction of the per-capita energy use of the rest of the world.2... 

Finally, it is likely to require international financial programs in order to provide the energy and distribution facilities, and supplies, needed by the growing low income nations. 

Nutritional surveys indicate that children of low-income groups consume less than recommended dietary allowances of calcium and iron. Dietary deficiencies of these two minerals have been shown to potentiate the toxicity of lead (Johnson and Tenuta 1979 Yip et al. 1981 Ziegler et al. 1978). Thus, nutrient deficiencies in conjunction with a developmental predisposition to absorb lead makes this subset of children at a substantially elevated risk. More information on children s susceptibility to lead is presented in Section 2.6. 

George Kaplan has shown that US states with greater inequality have higher rates of violence, more disability, more people without health insurance, less investment in education and literacy, and poorer educational outcomes, all of which he calls structural characteristics. Moreover, the socioenvironmental characters of population areas are importantly related to the mortality rates, independent of the characters of individuals. In addition, personal and socioeconomic risk factors cluster together in areas of low income and high mortality. In a thorough local study of Alameda County, California, Kaplan examined parts of the pathways linking social class and mortality. His basic claim is that health inequality is correlated to social instability, which is in turn correlated to the lack of investment in structural characteristics, such as education, proximity of healthful food outlets, pharmacies, accessibility of transportation, etc. 

Austria Does not affect 80% of the population. A percentage rate of co-payment for health care is applied to the rest, unless exempted for reasons of low income Combination of co-payment and percentage rate (with exemptions). The scheme of direct payments by the patient is limited to the first 28 days of hospitalization Co-payment for prescription drugs. Drugs not prescribed by health professionals are excluded... 

Furthermore, the price elasticities of demand for pharmaceuticals are likely to differ depending on individuals income. If low-income households have a more price-elastic demand, an increase in co-payment will cause them to make a proportionally larger reduction in their pharmaceutical consumption than high-income households. The same thing could happen if we make the comparison in terms of levels of health. We are faced with equity problems, to which we will return below. 

One study documented the paucity of opioid pharmaceuticals in low-income neighborhoods consisting primarily of African Americans and Hispanic Americans as evidence of barriers to adequate pain management among populations... 

Through the cooperation of WNEP-TV16, serving the Wilkes-Barre/ Scranton area in Pennsylvania, measurements for radon concentration levels were made in 42 residential buildings in 34 towns in northern Pennsylvania. In an alternate site in Luzerne County Pennsylvania, we measured radon concentrations in 41 residential buildings in 22 towns. This request came from the Commission on Economic Opportunity, a non profit social service agency that winterized the homes of low income families. 

Susceptibility factors increase the risk for kidney disease but do not directly cause kidney damage. Susceptibility factors include advanced age, reduced kidney mass and low birth weight, racial or ethnic minority, family history, low income or education, systemic inflammation, and dyslipidemia. 

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