Low-carbon fuel standard

The Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) in California requires fuel providers to ensure that the mix of fuel they sell to the California market meets, on average, a declining standard for GHG emissions measured in C02-equivalent gram per unit of fuel energy sold. By 2020, the LCFS will produce a 10% reduction in the carbon content of all passenger vehicle fuels sold in California. 

California Low Carbon Fuel Standard (reduce carbon intensity of fuel by 10% by 2020)... 

The California Air Resources Board (CARB) Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS), adopted in 2007. 

Under the 1948 commercial standard CS 12-48, fuel oil No. 1 is defined as intended for vaporizing pot-type burners and other burners requiring this grade, whereas No. 2 is defined as for general purpose domestic heating for use in burners not requiring No. 1. The No. 1 fuel is therefore specified to have a low 10% point in the ASTM distillation to ensure quick starting, and a low end point and low carbon residue to ensure clean vaporization. 

Carbons black includes several types of carbons, such as acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black. Commonly, their names are referred to the process or the source material from which they are made. Among those, the production of furnace black is the most important. Its production process consists in feeding a furnace with natural gas and aromatics oils as feedstock, where is vaporized and then pyrolyzed. Vulcan XC-72 (a furnace black from Cabot Corporation) is the most widely used catalyst support for low-temperature fuel cells due to their low cost and high availability, being this material used as standard to compare other types of carbons. Vulcan XC-72, formed by nanoparticles of 20-40 nm, has an electrical conductivity of 4 S cm a sulphur content of 0.05 %, and a negligible oxygen content [13]. Within the textural properties Vulcan carbon has a superficial area of 252 m g with a total pore volume of 0.63 cm g and a pore size distribution around 15 nm [14]. 

Flue gas Emissions NO emission is an important environmental issue for the process industry today. The NO is formed by nitrogen and oxygen reacting at the peak temperatures of the flames. A standard gas burner produees 100 ppm NO premixed gas burner 80 ppm staged gas burners 40 ppm ultralow NO gas burners 30 ppm and the latest generation ultralow NO gas burners produce 8-15 ppm NO . SOx is controlled by the sulfur in the fuel. Many plants have sulfur limits that require burning low sulfur fuel oil. Carbon monoxide (CO) should be less than 20 ppm. 

Modern gas-diffusion medium in low-temperature fuel cells is typically a highly porous carbon paper with porosity in the range of sgdl = 0.6-0.8 and with the mean pore radius in the order of 10 pm (10 cm). By the order of magnitude, the mean free path of molecules in atmospheric pressure air is = l/(A LO-fci ), where Nl = 2.686 10 cm is the Loschmidt number (number of molecules in a cubic centimetre of atmospheric pressure gas at standard temperature) and akin — 10 cm is the molecular cross-section for kinetic collisions. With this data we get 3 10 cm, or 3 10 pm. Obviously, mean pore radius in the GDL is nearly 3 orders of magnitude greater than I f and the physical mechanism of molecule transport is binary molecular diffusion. 

TRISO-coated particle is the standard fuel used today. As shown in Fig. 3.3, the innermost of the particle is a low-enriched fuel kernel of usually UO2 and sometimes UOC. The kernel is coated by a buffer layer of porous carbon and then by the successive TRISO layers, including the inner layer of high-density pyrolytic... 

The rule proposes emission standards for dioxins, furans, mercury, cadmium, lead, PM, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and several low-volatile metals. It also proposes a new comparable fuels exclusion and makes significant changes to the existing combustion regulations. 

Ofher diffusion layer approaches can also be found in the literature. Chen-Yang et al. [81] made DLs for PEMFCs out of carbon black and unsintered PTFE comprising PTFE powder resin in a colloidal dispersion. The mixture of fhese materials was then heated and compressed at temperature between 75 and 85°C under a low pressure (70-80 kg/cm ). After this, the DLs were obtained by heating the mixture once more at 130°C for around 2-3 hours. Evenfually, fhe amount of resin had a direct influence on determining the properties of fhe DL. The fuel cell performance of this novel DL was shown to be around a half of that for a CFP standard DL. Flowever, because the manufacturing process of these carbon black/PTFE DLs is inexpensive, they can still be considered as potential candidates. 

The Consolidated Edison test results, as shown in Table VI, indicated complete suitability of SRC-II coal liquids as a high quality boiler fuel. No operational problems were encountered and no deposits were observed. Combustion efficiency was comparable to that for the low-sulfur No. 6 fuel oil, as were the levels of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions. Modifications to burner equipment required to handle the SRC-II fuel oil are considered to be no more extensive than those required for similar variations in petroleum fuels. Particulate emissions for the SRC-II fuel oil were generally lower than for the No. 6 fuel oil, and were in all cases below the new source performance standards proposed by EPA (0.03 lbs/MM Btu). 

The first polymerizations were free radical reactions. In 1933 researchers at ICI discovered that ethene polymerizes into a branched structure that is now known as low density polyethene (LDPE). In the mid- 50s a series of patents were issued for new processes in which solid catalysts were used to produce polyethene at relatively low pressures. The first was granted to scientists at Standard Oil (Indiana) who applied nickel oxide on activated carbon and molybdenum oxide on alumina. Their research did not lead to commercial processes. In the late 40s Hogan and Banks of Phillips were assigned to study the di- and trimerization of lower olefins. The objective was to produce high octane motor fuels. When they tried a chromium salt as promoter of a certain catalyst (Cr was a known reforming... 

The American 1970 Clean Air Act defined ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) in the United States for atmospheric ozone, NO, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, and PM-10 (particulate matter less than 10 p.m). The strategy to reduce levels of lead, NOx, PM-10, and to some extent carbon monoxide was to control emissions from automobiles that included the phasing-out of leaded fuel. As previously noted, ozone is a product of the photochemical reaction of volatile organic compounds with NOx (photochemical smog), so the balance between organic compounds and NOx pollutants is important in meeting target ozone levels (e.g., 0.12 ppm). Emissions from stationary sources is an important factor, and limits have been set for them. Because of low pressure drop requirements, coated monolithic catalysts... 

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