Lead alloys industry requirements

Nuclear and magneto-hydrodynamic electric power generation systems have been produced on a scale which could lead to industrial production, but to-date technical problems, mainly connected with corrosion of the containing materials, has hampered full-scale development. In the case of nuclear power, the proposed fast reactor, which uses fast neutron fission in a small nuclear fuel element, by comparison with fuel rods in thermal neutron reactors, requires a more rapid heat removal than is possible by water cooling, and a liquid sodium-potassium alloy has been used in the development of a near-industrial generator. The fuel container is a vanadium sheath with a niobium outer cladding, since this has a low fast neutron capture cross-section and a low rate of corrosion by the liquid metal coolant. The liquid metal coolant is transported from the fuel to the turbine generating the electric power in stainless steel... 

Table 4.4 summarises the effects of As on the mechanical properties of low-antimony lead alloys [21]. Arsenic improves the hardness and less so the UTS of the alloys. If these data are compared with the required grid alloy characteristics presented in Table 4.1, it can be seen that lead alloys with addition of arsenic meet the requirements of the battery industry with regard to hardness and their tensile strength is close to the required values. 

From 50 to 60% of the Mexican lead production is used as oxides which enter into several industrial processes, in particular, battery manufacturing and production of tetraethyl lead. The remainder is used in the production of solder, cables, ammunition, pigments, paints, ceramics, enamels, and other products (Cortinas 1988). Another important use of lead in Mexico is in the manufacturing of metal parts that require lead alloys (Molina 1977) some relevant data are presented in Table 3 (IMZPC 1986, 1987). 

In the literature, numerous lead alloys containing almost all other elements of the periodic table have been tested in an effort to meet the miscellaneous requirements of the lead-acid battery industry [3]. Among those alloys explored, the most widely used ones are antimony-containing lead alloys. 

These alloy coatings have advantages over tin in atmospheric exposure where there is heavy pollution by oxides of sulphur. They are cathodic to steel and anodic to copper. In industrial atmospheres, however, formation of a layer of lead sulphate seals pores and produces a generally stable surface and terne-plate has been used extensively as roofing sheet, especially in the USA. It is easily and effectively painted when additional protection is required. Copper heat exchangers in gas-fired water-heaters may be coated by hot dipping in 20% tin alloy . 

Arsenic is also used in small quantities in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries (which are recycled), in the production of a few nonferrous alloys and in the electronics industry. It has been suggested that rather than importing primary arsenic for industrial uses, this could be recovered from wood waste, although the amounts required are only of the order of one to two thousand tonnes per year in Europe, and similar amounts in the USA (Lindroos, 2002). 

Often the OEM coatings depend on the nature and condition of the substrate to which paint is applied application methods and conditions drying time required and decorative and protective requirements. The substrate most commonly coated with industrial coatings are iron and steel, but also include other metals such as aluminum and its alloys, zinc-coated steel, brass, bronze, copper, and lead. Nonmetalhc substrates include timber and timber products, concrete, cement, glass, ceramics, fabric, paper, leather, and a wide range of different plastic materials. Consequently, industrial coatings are usually formulated for use on either a specific substrate or a group of substrates. 

Tellurium is used in the metallurgical industry as an alloy constituent. Tellurium improves the acid resistance of lead used in batteries. It is also used in the manufacture of heat- and abrasive-resistant rubber. Tellurium is obtained as a by-product in the electrolytic refining of copper. In the semiconductor industry, the ultra-trace level determination of tellurium in tellurium-doped single crystals is often required. Tellurium species are highly toxic. 

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