Industrial lead-acid batteries

As the lead-acid battery industry comes to grips with the novel circumstances of HRPSoC duty, there appears to be scope for a fresh approach to plate design, perhaps supported by the provision of more porosity within the plates to accommodate more local acid. 

Both the methods (Barton pot and ball-mill) produced partially oxidised lead oxide containing between 20% and 40% free lead. Hence, this oxide was called leady oxide . The production time of this oxide was reduced substantially, which gave a strong impetus to the development of the lead—acid battery industry after 1926. Nowadays, these two processes are still the dominating methods for leady oxide production. 

Despite the recent rapid development of secondary lithium ion/lithium polymer batteries, advanced technology development, designs, and fabrication processes are still being developed and introduced into the lead-acid battery industry. Table 1.1 shows the major advantages and disadvantages of lead-acid batteries. 

Table 1.2 lists the major technology developments in the lead-acid battery industry since the battery s invention in 1859. 

In the literature, numerous lead alloys containing almost all other elements of the periodic table have been tested in an effort to meet the miscellaneous requirements of the lead-acid battery industry [3]. Among those alloys explored, the most widely used ones are antimony-containing lead alloys. 

In the United States, the development of batteries for EVs and HEVs has been mostly earried out under the auspices of the USABC since the early 1990s (see Sec. 37.1.1). In addition to the USABC, the Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium (ALABC) was formed by the International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO) and the lead-acid battery industry to develop that technology for EV applications. 

USABC has set the goal so high that lead-acid batteries have been put out of the question for this application [29]. This led to an initiative by the lead-acid battery industry and their suppliers to set up the Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium (ALABC) with the goal of fostering development of the lead-acid battery for use in electric vehicles, at least for an interim period until more powerful batteries with higher energy density will become available. Here a series of complex technical problems have to be solved [30]. Of course, such electric vehicle batteries have to be maintenance-free, that is, of sealed construction the resulting use of lead-calcium alloys and thus the premature capacity loss have already been touched on. 

Because about 80% of the lead consumed in the United States is for use in lead—acid batteries, most recycled lead derives from this source of scrap. More than 95% of the lead is reclaimed. Hence, the bulk of the recycling industry is centered on the processing of lead battery scrap. 

The electrowinning process developed by Ginatta (34) has been purchased by M.A. Industries (Atlanta, Georgia), and the process is available for licensing (qv). MA Industries have also developed a process to upgrade the polypropylene chips from the battery breaking operation to pellets for use by the plastics industry. Additionally, East Penn (Lyons Station, Pennsylvania), has developed a solvent-extraction process to purify the spent acid from lead—acid batteries and use the purified acid in battery production (35). 

Because the nickel—iron cell system has a low cell voltage and high cost compared to those of the lead—acid battery, lead—acid became the dorninant automotive and industrial battery system except for heavy-duty appHcations. Renewed interest in the nickel—iron and nickel—cadmium systems, for electric vehicles started in the mid-1980s using other cell geometries. 

In Figure 1, the cutaway view of the automotive battery shows the components used in its constmction. An industrial motive power battery, shown in Figure 2 (2), is the type used for lift tmcks, trains, and mine haulage. Both types of batteries have the standard free electrolyte systems and operate only in the vertical position. Although a tubular positive lead—acid battery is shown for industrial appHcations, the dat plate battery constmction (Fig. 1) is also used in a comparable size. 

World production of lead—acid batteries in 1988, excluding the Eastern European central economy countries, has been estimated at 9.45 biUion. The automotive market was 6743 million or 211.6 million units. Industrial battery sales were 2082 million and consumer battery sales were 454 million. Motorcycle batteries accounted for an additional 170 million or 25 million units. Most batteries are produced in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, but smaller numbers are produced worldwide. The breakdown in sales for the three production areas foUows. Automotive battery sales were 2304 million in the United States, 1805 in Western Europe, and 945 million in Japan. Industrial battery sales were 525 million in the United States, 993 million in Western Europe, and 266 million in Japan. Consumer battery sales were 104 million in the United States, 226 million in Japan, and 82 million in Western Europe. More than half of all motorcycle batteries are produced in Japan and Taiwan (1). 

Arsenic is also used in small quantities in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries (which are recycled), in the production of a few nonferrous alloys and in the electronics industry. It has been suggested that rather than importing primary arsenic for industrial uses, this could be recovered from wood waste, although the amounts required are only of the order of one to two thousand tonnes per year in Europe, and similar amounts in the USA (Lindroos, 2002). 

Lead-acid batteries can be classified into three major types or categories, namely, automotive (SLI), stationary, and motive power (industrial). In addition, there are many special batteries that cannot be easily categorized as either of the above types. As these types of batteries are constructed with different materials and design to meet the requirements of their intended end uses, each requires a particular separator with specific material composition, mechanical design, and physical, chemical, and electrochemical properties that are tailored for the battery and its relevant specific uses. These batteries are generally available in flooded electrolyte or valve regulated (sealed) versions. In this section the types... 

Sulfur is one of the four major commodities of the chemical industry. The other three are limestone, coal, and salt. Most sulfur that is produced is used to manufacture sulfuric acid (HjSO ). Forty million tons are produced each year in the manufacture of fertilizers, lead-acid batteries, gunpowder, desiccants (drying agent), matches, soaps, plastics, bleaching agents, rubber, road asphalt binders, insecticides, paint, dyes, medical ointment, and other pharmaceutical products, among many, many other uses. Sulfur is essential to life. 

The world market for batteries of all types now exceeds 100 billion. Over half of this sum is accounted for by lead-acid batteries - mainly for vehicle starting, lighting and ignition (SL1), and industrial use including traction and standby power, with about one-third being devoted to primary cells and the remainder to alkaline rechargeable and specialist batteries. 

By far the largest sector of the battery industry worldwide is based on the lead-acid aqueous cell whose dominance is due to a combination of low cost, versatility and the excellent reversibility of the electrochemical system, Lead-acid cells have extensive use both as portable power sources for vehicle service and traction, and in stationary applications ranging from small emergency supplies to load levelling systems. In terms of sales, the lead-acid battery occupies over 50% of the entire primary and secondary market, with an estimated value of 100 billion per annum before retail mark-up. 

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