Industrial production history

Results from measurements of time-dependent effects depend on the sample history and experimental conditions and should be considered approximate. For example, the state of an unsheared or undisturbed sample is a function of its previous shear history and the length of time since it underwent shear. The area of a thixotropic loop depends on the shear range covered, the rate of shear acceleration, and the length of time at the highest shear rate. However, measurements of time-dependent behavior can be usehil in evaluating and comparing a number of industrial products and in solving flow problems. 

M. Kaufman, The Chemistry and Industrial Production of Polyvinyl Chloride The History ofPHC, Gordon and Breach Science PubHshers Inc., New York, 1969, pp. 387-388. 

The pharmacopeias have worked with the ICH process to facilitate the international environment of pharmaceutical research and product registration. On the other hand, the additional situation for compendia is that the standards which they have published now apply to all of the already marketed products. In that case a company has testing history and product history in their quality control departments. These are the most conservative elements within the pharmaceutical industry as is necessary to their task. Quality control departments are reluctant to change methods when they feel that their products are properly represented by the current of tests. Therefore, a tension is ereated between trying to develop harmonized standards, which facilitate one area of activity in the world of pharmaeeutieals, and not disturbing a satisfactory marketplace. A vast amount of progress has been made in the harmonization of phar-maeopeial methods. 

As stated earlier in this paper, FGD wet scrubbers can produce either calcium sulfite (the typical product) or calciiun sulfate. The DDO crystallizer is advantageous for either product. The following industrial case history describes the production of calcium sulfate dihydrate (or gypsum) product fi om an industrial in-plant weak sulfuric acid liquor using a DDO crystallizer configuration. 

This section starts with a history of hydroformylation until 1993 and focuses on the following four topics since 1994 (i) recent advances in the normal-scXQCXAWQ hydroformylation and asymmetric hydroformylation, (ii) new spectroscopic techniques for understanding details of the reaction, (iii) new reaction media and catalysts for separation which are important for industrial production, and (iv) recent applications to organic syntheses. 

Sputtering of ZnO films has a history covering more than three decades. The technique is now one of the most versatile deposition processes for industrial production of ZnO films. 

In development the same types of major questions always remain to be answered in appropriate preclinical studies, even if the nature of those experiments has changed as greater understanding and more searching techniques have enabled more precise or more specific questions to be asked. This generalization can be illustrated by the history of the industrial production of interferon and antilymphocyte antibody. 

In such models the OH concentration field is computed using measured or estimated concentration fields of the precursor molecules and photon flux data. The resulting OH field is then tuned such that it correctly predicts the lifetime of methyl chloroform (CH3CCI3) with respect to OH radical attack. From measurements of the atmospheric turnover time of CH3CCI3 (4.8 years) [20], its lifetime with respect to loss in the stratosphere (45 years), and its lifetime with respect to loss in the oceans (85 years) the tropospheric lifetime of CH3CCI3 with respect to OH radical attack has been inferred to be 5.7 years [17,21], Methyl chloroform is the calibration molecule of choice because it has a long history of precise atmospheric measurements, it has no natural sources, its industrial production is well documented, and because the kinetics of reaction Eq. 20 are well established, feo = 1.8 x 10-12 exp(- 1500/T) cm3 molecule-1 s-1 [22]. 

A common feature of all these compounds is their tetrahedral structure at the silicon atom which is bound to four oxygen neighbors. A tremendous breakthrough in the history of silicon-based polymers has been achieved by the invention of the Direct Process by Muller and Rochow resulting in the industrial production of methyl chlorosilanes with hydrolytically stable Si-C bonds besides very reactive Si-Cl bonds which serve as building units for a wide variety of polydimethyl siloxanes including silicon fluids, resins, and elastomers. 

Rabinbach, The Human Motor, p. 111. Rabinbach is here paraphrasing the conclusions of a seminal article by Charles S. Maier, "Between Taylorism and Technocracy European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s, Journal of Contemporary History 5, no. 2 (1970) 27-63. 

In another industrial cooperation with the German company Schwermetall [956], we realized an integrator that collects data from automation systems of production processes in a centralized repository. The data are grouped in a way that for each product leaving the factory its production history is clearly visible. As central repository, Aspen Batch.21 [514] is used. Data sources include different databases, such as those of the process information management system (PIMS) Aspen InfoPlus.21 [515] and some proprietary automation solutions. 

Chlorinated benzenes are key precursors for the industrial production of colours, pesticides, rubber products and disinfectants. Additionally, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) was used for a long time as a pesticide. Octachlorostyrene is a specific by-product of the production of magnesium, as well as a by-product of the technical production of chlorine (Kaminski and Hites, 1984). Hexachloro-1,3-butadiene is used in the rubber production, as hydraulic liquid, solvent and as a by-product of the technical synthesis of chlorinated compounds like tetrachloroethene (Booker and Pavlostathis, 2000). Bis(chloropropyl)ethers represent byproducts of the technical synthesis of epichlorhydrin, used for the production of epoxy resins and disinfectants. The concentration profile of the individual chlorinated compounds reveals different emission histories. 

Hobhouse, H. 2002, The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition Science, Art and Productive Industry a History of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, Ath-lone, London. 

The industrial production and usage of pesticides has its relatively short but controversial history. The modem development of agriculture would be impossible and present status of public health would be on far lower level without pesticides application. In the two main areas of pesticide current... 

The way in which testing methods keep in touch with changing market patterns is illustrated by excerpts taken from the history of the original process for making activated carbon in America. The source material for that process was black-ash residue, a waste product from the manufacture of soda pulp. Although this early activated carbon had much less adsorptive power than brands of today, it was found useful for decolorizing coconut oil, phosphoric acid, and other industrial products. Complaints were received from customers stating that the quality was uneven, and as these complaints became more frequent it was necessary to institute quality controls. 

At a concentration of 22.7 g kg sodium is among the most abundant elements in the Earth s crust, and is found in relatively pure form in extensive deposits of chloride, sulfate, and other salts. With this concentration it occupies seventh place in the frequency list of elements. Of all species dissolved in ocean water, sodium is that with the highest concentration, about 11 gkg . Sodium chloride, occurring as rock salt or halite, is by far the most common natural source of sodium other important sodium salts found widely in nature are sodium borate (kernite), sodium carbonate (trona), sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter), and sodium sulfate (mirabilite) (Klemm et al. 2000). The history of the industrial production of sodium, which extends over more than 100 years, can be divided into four periods. Thermochemical reduction processes were used in two factories between 1854 and 1890. The annual production of sodium was 5-6 tons in 1854, and > 150 tons between 1888 and 1890. 

The Science of Ice Cream begins with an introductory chapter on the history of ice cream. Subsequent chapters outline the physical chemistry underlying its manufacture, describe the ingredients and industrial production of ice cream and ice cream products respectively, detail the wide range of different physical and sensory techniques used to measure and assess ice cream, describe its microstructure (i.e. ice crystals, air bubbles, fat droplets and sugar solution), and how this relates to the physical properties and ultimately the texture that you experience when you eat it. Finally, some suggestions are provided for experiments relating to ice cream and ways to make ice cream at home or in a school laboratory. 

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