Immune response, effect

Eisenstein TK, Hilburger ME (1998) Opioid modulation of immune responses effects on phagocyte and lymphoid cell populations. J Neuroimmunol 83 36-44 El-Hage N, Gurwell JA, Singh IN, Knapp PE, Nath A, Hauser KF (2005) Synergistic increases in intracellular Ca +, and the release of MCP-1, RANTES, and IL-6 by astrocytes treated with opiates and HIV-1 Tat. Gha 50 91-106... 

Despite their popularity, aluminium-based adjuvants suffer from several drawbacks. They tend to stimulate only the humoral arm of the immune response effectively. They cannot be frozen or lyophylized, as either process promotes destruction of their gel-based structure. In addition,... 

Wilson, R.A. and Coulson, P.S. (1 999) Strategies for a schistosome vaccine can we manipulate the immune response effectively Microbes and Infection 1, 535-543. 

Three toxicology studies were conducted an acute study in rats and two 13-week studies in rats and monkeys. Most findings in these studies could be attributed to infusion of large amounts of exogenous protein that directly or indirectly (through an immune response) effected changes. As would be... 

Immimocompromised patients that develop clinical disease have impairments in T-cell function, thus highlighting the importance of lymphocytes in controlling this persistent infection. In addition, the presence of bradyzoites and their subsequent rupture can cause life-threatening recrudescence of acute infection in immunocompromised individuals (Sullivan et al., 2009). The immune response effectively prevents... 

Eisenstein TK, Hilburger ME. Opioid modulation of immune responses effects on phagocyte and lymphoid cell populations. J Neuroimmunol 1998 83 36-44. 

Interferons (lENs) (52,53), a family of species-specific vertebrate proteins, confer nonspecific resistance to a broad range of viral infections, affect cell proliferation, and modulate immune responses. AH three principal interferons, a-interferon (lEN-a) produced by blood leucocytes, P-interferon (lEN-P) by fibroblasts, and y-interferon (lEN-y) by lymphocytes, also have antiviral activity. The abiUty of interferons to inhibit growth of transplantable and carcinogen-induced tumor led to research showing the direct antiproliferative and indirect immune-mediated antitumor activities (see Chemotherapeutics, anticancer). IENs have been found to be efficacious in certain malignancies and viral infections, eg, hairy cell leukemia (85% response) and basal cell carcinoma (86% response). However, the interferons do have adverse side effects (54). 

The active immunotherapeutic approach is specific and based on the premise that tumor antigens are immunogenic and the host is sufficientiy immunocompetent to mount an effective immune response to an autologous tumor. Theoretically, a weak or suppressed host immune system that had allowed the formation of a tumor may be overridden by active immunization or immunostimulation. In practice, vaccines composed of so-called autologous tumor extracts have been used to treat patients with malignant melanoma (73), and purified melanoma tumor-associated antigens have been used to ehcit antibody responses in melanoma patients (74). 

Finally, in another study related to nutrition and the immune response in the aged, old mice were given oral doses of two amino acids (qv), lysine and arginine. The treated mice showed evidences of recovered mitogenic responsiveness, expression of T-ceU markers, and production of thymic semm factor (thymulin). The effect of the amino acid combination, sold commercially as Neoiodarsolo, seems to consist mainly of the reactivation of the... 

Adjuvants are substances which can modify the immune response of an antigen (139,140). With better understanding of the functions of different arms of the immune system, it is possible to explore the effects of an adjuvant, such that the protective efficacy of a vaccine can be improved. At present, aluminum salt is the only adjuvant approved for use in human vaccines. New adjuvants such as QS-21, 3D-MPL, MF-59, and other liposome preparations are being evaluated. Several of these adjuvants have been in clinical trial, but none have been approved for human use. IL-12 has been proposed as an adjuvant which can specifically promote T-helper 1 ceU response, and can be a very promising adjuvant for future vaccine development. 

In 1971, levamisole, an anthelmintic compound widely used in catde and swine, was shown to improve the effects of an experimental Brucella abortus vaccine in mice. Since that time, the veterinarians and physicians have explored the effects of levamisole in such diverse areas as arthritis, lupus erythematosis, cancer therapy, respiratory diseases, Newcastle disease, foot-and-mouth disease, mastitis, and vaccine potentiation. Although the exact mechanism of action has as yet not been deterrnined there is substantial evidence that, under defined circumstances, levamisole can augment the animal s natural immune response (9). New immunostimulants include Staph Ijysate acemannon, NLAB-31. 

Research on an hCG vaccine has been conducted over the past 15 years. WHO has conducted a phase I clinical study in AustraUa, using a vaccine based on a synthetic C-terminal peptide (109—141) of P-hCG conjugated to Diptheria Toxoid (CTP-DT), that showed potentially effective contraceptive levels of antibodies were produced in vaccinated women without any adverse side effects. Phase II clinical studies are under consideration to determine if the immune response, raised to its prototype anti-hCG vaccine, is capable of preventing pregnancy in fertile women volunteers (115). While research on the C-terminal peptide from the P-subunit of hCG has been carried out under the auspices of WHO, research supported by the Population Council and the National Institutes of Health has involved two alternative vaccine candidates (109,116,118). 

A number of chimerized, humanized, and one human mAb have now been approved for therapeutic use in humans in the treatment of autoimmunity, malignancy, infection and cardiovascular disease (Table 1). Some of the currently licensed mAb will be discussed here. A much larger number of mAb are currently being evaluated in Phase I, II and III trials. In general, chimeric, humanized and human mAb are very well tolerated with few side effects. Chimeric or humanized mAb still have the potential to evoke host immune response to the variable domains or CDRs of the antibody so-called HACA (human anti-chimeric antibody) or HAHA (human anti-human antibody) responses, although these responses are uncommon. Short-lived and occasionally severe infusion-related acute hypersensitivity reactions such as fever, skin itching, shivering, respiratory compromise and low blood pressure sometimes occur-. Such effects may... 

Dead or live bacteria may be effective to stimulate inflammatory reactions of phagocytic cells against tumor cells. The best-characterized treatment is the use of Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) in the case of bladder cancer where activation of the immune response is capable of controlling tumor growth. 

Commercially available dtugs used for therapeutic therapy comprise up to date mainly injectable monoclonal antibodies like Infliximab (Remicade ) and Adalimumab (Humira ) or TNF-receptor derivatives like Etanercept (Enbrel ) (Fig. 3). One possible way of action of these reagents is the neutralization of TNF, thereby blocking its inflammatory effects and dampening (auto)immune responses [3, 4]. 

When asparaginase is administered to a patient witii diabetes, die risk for hyperglycemia is increased a dosage adjustment of die oral antidiabetic drug may be necessary. Glucocorticoids decrease die effectiveness of aldesleukin. When aldesleukin is administered witii antihypertensive drugs, tiiere is an additive hypotensive effect Etoposide may decrease the immune response to live viral vaccines. 

In-vitro models can provide preliminary insights into some pharmacodynamic aspects. For example, cultured Caco 2 cell lines (derived from a human colorectal carcinoma) may be used to simulate intestinal absorption behaviour, while cultured hepatic cell lines are available for metabolic studies. However, a comprehensive understanding of the pharmacokinetic effects vfill require the use of in-vivo animal studies, where the drug levels in various tissues can be measured after different dosages and time intervals. Radioactively labelled drugs (carbon-14) may be used to facilitate detection. Animal model studies of human biopharmaceutical products may be compromised by immune responses that would not be expected when actually treating human subjects. 

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