Gender difference

Many differences in overall toxicity between males and females of various species are known (Table 9.1). Although it is not always known whether metabolism is the only or even the most important factor, such differences may be due to gender-related differences in metabolism. Hexobarbital is metabolized faster by male rats thus female rats have longer sleeping times. Parathion is activated to the cholinesterase inhibitor paraoxon more rapidly in female than in male rats, and thus is more toxic to females. Presumably many of the gender-related differences, as with the developmental differences, are related to quantitative or qualitative differences in the isozymes of the xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes that exist in multiple forms, but this aspect has not been investigated extensively. 

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Chen W, Mempel M. Schober W, Behrendt H, Ring 50 J Gender difference, sex hormones, and immediate type hypersensitivity reactions. Allergy 2008 63 1418-1427. 

Pigott TA (1999). Gender differences in the epidemiology and treatment of anxiety disorders./Clin Psychiatry 60 (suppl. 18),... 

Sleep disorders are common. Approximately 50% of adults will report a sleep complaint over the course of their lives.2 In general, sleep disturbances increase with age, and each disorder may have gender differences. The full extent and impact of disordered sleep on our society are not known because many patients sleep disorders remain undiagnosed. Normal sleep, by definition, is a reversible behavioral state of perceptual disengagement from... 

Given the mixed results in the literature, it is difficult to know just how caffeine does affect memory. To some extent, the differential effects may depend on the memory assessment method (recall or recognition) and the time frame (immediate or delayed). Gender differences may also cloud the picture, as discussed above. Even when these differences are taken into account, however, unexplained discrepancies remain. One partial explanation may be that the differential effects of caffeine are a function of the subject s memory load. For example, Anderson65 found that caffeine enhanced low load memory tasks but was detrimental in high load tasks. This could be due to the increased arousal induced by the high load task, which, in the presence of caffeine, could produce overarousal. The drop in arousal output as the subject crossed the peak of the inverted U-shaped function could cause the memory deficits observed in some studies. 

Kaholokula, J. K. el al. (2006). Ethnic-by-gender differences in cigarette smoking among Asian and Pacific fslanders. Nicotine Tob. Res., 8, 275-86. 

Zhang-Wong, J. et al. (1998). An investigation of ethnic and gender differences in the pharmacodynamics ofhaloperidol. Psychiatry Res., 81, 333-9. 

Schiissler, P Uhr, M., Ising, M. et al. (2005). Nocturnal ghrelin levels-relationship to sleep EEG, the levels of growth hormone, ACTH and cortisol - and gender differences. J. Sleep Res. 14, 329-36. 

Mochizuki, T., Villemagne, V., Scheffel, U. et al. Nicotine induced up-regulation of nicotinic receptors in CD-I mice demonstrated with an in vivo radiotracer gender differences. Synapse. 30 116, 1998. 

Brady KT, Grice DE, Dustan L and Randall C (1993). Gender differences in substance use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1707-1711. 

Such a positive/negative flow of life force, stemming from electro-vitalism, became increasingly gendered during this period as it moved into medical discussions of gender difference (see Clarke 31). 

In utero exposure to mercury did not produce significant adverse effects on adult performance, although gender differences may interact with methylmercury on certain behaviors... 

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 1992. Heavy metal and selenium concentrations in black skimmers (Rynchops niger) gender differences. Arch. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 23 431-434. 

VTED has a lower prevalence (approximately 1/1000 persons per year), but it rises exponentially with age from < 5 cases per 100,000 persons < 15 years old to = 500 cases per 100,000 (0.5%) at age 80 years (White 2003). Against the strong gender differences found in CHD statistics, no convincing difference between men and women have been detected for VTED (Silverstein et al. 1998). 

Bunn, T.L., Marsh, J. A. and Dietert, R.R., Gender differences in developmental immunotoxicity to lead in the chicken Analysis following a single low-level exposure in ovo, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 61, 677, 2000. 

Ambrose, S.H., Buikstra, J and Kreuger, H.W. (2003). Status and gender differences in diet at Mound 72, Cahokia, revealed by isotopic analysis of bone. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22 217-226. 

Food and Drug Administration (1993). Guideline for the Study and Evaluation of Gender Differences in the Clinical Evaluation of Drugs. Federal Register, Thursday, July 22, 1993. Vol. 58, No. 139, pp. 39405-39416. 

A variety of kinds of evidence have linked emotional behavior to hormones. Two conditions, the menstrual cycle and menopause, have been the focus of a great deal of research on human behavior. In addition, gender differences in the prevalence of mental illnesses have been used as indirect evidence for possible hormonal effects on emotional disorders. For example, depression is more common in women than in men. In contrast, a pubertal onset of schizophrenia is more common in males than females (Hafner, et al., 1993), although the lifetime occurrence of schizophrenia is approximately equal in men and women (Seeman, 1996). Effects of hormones on emotional lability in men are described above in the context of aggression. 

Hafner, H Riecher-Rossler, A., An der Heiden, W., Maurer, K., Fatkenheuer, and Loffler, W. 1993. Generating and testing a causal explanation of the gender difference in age at first onset of schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 23 925—940. 

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL STRATEGIES OF RUSSIAN URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLCHILDREN... 

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