Environment waste disposal sites

Nyhan JW, Drennon BJ, Abeele WV, et al. 1985. Distribution of plutonium and americium beneath a 33-yr old liquid waste disposal site. J Environ Qual 14(4) 501-509. 

Revegetation is a cost-effective method to stabilize the surface of hazardous waste disposal sites, especially when preceded by capping and grading. Revegetation decreases erosion by wind and water and contributes to the development of a naturally fertile and stable surface environment. It may be part of a long-term site reclamation project, or it may be used on a temporary or seasonal basis to stabilize intermediate cover surfaces at waste disposal sites. 

Van Duijvenbooden, W. and Kooper, W. F., 1981, Effects on Groundwater Flow and Ground-water Quality of a Waste Disposal Site in Noordwijk, the Netherlands Science Total Environment, No. 21, pp. 85-92. 

As a result of human health concerns, production of mirex ceased in 1976, at which time industrial releases of this chemical to surface waters were also curtailed. However, releases from waste disposal sites continue to add mirex to the environment. Virtually all industrial releases of mirex were to surface waters, principally Lake Ontario via contamination of the Niagara and Oswego Rivers. About 75% of the mirex produced was used as a fire retardant additive, while 25% was used as a pesticide. As a pesticide, mirex was widely dispersed throughout the southern United States where it was used in the fire ant eradication program for over 10 years. 

Production of chlordecone ceased in 1975 as a result of human health concerns at that time industrial releases of this chemical to surface waters via a municipal sewage system were curtailed. However, releases from waste disposal sites may continue to add chlordecone to the environment. Major releases of chlordecone occurred to the air, surface waters, and soil surrounding a major manufacturing site in Hopewell, Virginia. Releases from this plant ultimately contaminated the water, sediment, and biota of the James River, a tributary to the Chesapeake Bay. 

Mirex has been detected in air, surface water, soil and sediment, aquatic organisms, and foodstuffs. Historically, mirex was released to the environment primarily during its production or formulation for use as a fire retardant and as a pesticide. There are no known natural sources of mirex and production of the compound was terminated in 1976. Currently, hazardous waste disposal sites and contaminated sediment sinks in Lake Ontario are the major sources for mirex releases to the environment (Brower and Ramkrishnadas 1982 Comba et al. 1993). 

Pellizzari ED. 1982. Analysis for organic vapor emissions near industrial and chemical waste disposal sites. Environ Sci Technol 16 781-785. 

Because radium is present, usually at very low levels, in the surrounding environment, you are always exposed to it and to the small amounts of radiation that it releases to its surroundings. You may be exposed to higher levels of radium if you live in an area where it is released into the air from the burning of coal or other fuels, or if your drinking water is taken from a source that is high in natural radium, such as a deep well, or from a source near a radioactive waste disposal site. 

The term risk as used in this Report refers to the probability of harm, combined with the potential severity of that harm. In the context of impacts on human health resulting from disposal of hazardous waste, risk is the probability of a response in an individual or the frequency of a response in a population taking into account (1) the probability of occurrence of processes and events that could result in release of hazardous substances to the environment and the magnitude of such releases, (2) the probability that individuals or populations would be exposed to the hazardous substances released to the environment and the magnitude of such exposures, and (3) the probability that an exposure would produce a response. For example, risk refers to the probability that a member of the public living near a waste disposal site will develop a certain type of cancer as a result of emplacement of hazardous substances at the site. When expressed as a probability, risk is a number between zero and one, without units. In this Report, all values are risks to an individual over a normal lifetime. Risk can be calculated for individual radioactive and chemical substances in waste and for specific pathways by which release and exposure might occur. These component risks can be combined to yield an overall risk that arises from disposal of waste. 

The dominance of the risk to inadvertent intruders at near-surface waste disposal sites allows the use of this type of scenario to develop a risk-based waste classification system. However, NCRP recognizes that exposures of the public and protection of the environment also are of concern in determining acceptable disposal practices at specific sites. The potential for off-site releases of hazardous substances is the primary reason that classification of waste based on risks to hypothetical inadvertent intruders does not obviate the need for site-specific risk assessments to determine waste acceptance criteria in the form of limits on disposal of particular hazardous substances. 

The general concern about limiting off-site releases of hazardous substances is the primary reason why classification of waste based on risks to hypothetical inadvertent intruders at waste disposal sites does not provide a substitute for site-specific risk assessments when determining acceptable disposal practices. Nonetheless, experience with risk assessments at near-surface disposal sites for low-level radioactive waste has indicated that, for most radionuclides, disposal limits that provide adequate protection of future inadvertent intruders should provide adequate protection of the public and the environment at off-site locations as well. Exceptions are expected to occur only in unusual cases of long-lived and highly mobile radionuclides. 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Law, also known as Superfund, passed in 1980 and amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 and later amendments, that governs federal response and compensation for unpermitted and uncontrolled releases, including threats of release, of hazardous substances to the environment. An unpermitted release is any release that is not properly regulated under other laws. An important focus of CERCLA/SARA is remediation of old, unpermitted waste disposal sites that are closed or inactive. Basic objectives of the Superfund program are to protect human health and the environment in a cost-effective manner, maintain this protection over time, and minimize the amounts of untreated waste in the environment. 

The release of PCDD/PCDF from transport activities was estimated to be very minimal and not reported for uncontrolled combustion processes (Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2004). In the Department of Environment Malaysia 1997 report, the major sources of air pollution in 1996 were motor vehicles, 82%, power stations, 9%, industrial fuel burning, 5%, industrial production processes, 3%, domestic and commercial furnaces, 0.2%, and open burning at solid waste disposal sites, 0.8% (Afroz et al., 2003). Leaded gasoline has been phased out since 1998 and most cars have been fitted with catalytic converters since then. Consequently, a minimal release of PCDD/PCDF is expected from motor vehicles that are mainly from diesel-powered vehicles. The released air pollutions monitored were CO, N02, S02, 03, and suspended particulate matters. 

DEHP can enter the environment through releases from factories that make or use DEHP and from household items containing it. Over long periods of time, it can move out of plastic materials into the environment. Therefore, DEHP is widespread in the environment about 291,000 pounds were released in 1997 from industries. It is often found near industrial settings, landfills, and waste disposal sites. A large amount of plastic that contains DEHP is buried at landfill sites. DEHP has been found in groundwater near waste disposal facilities. 

In a waste disposal site evaluation, the hazard identification step will involve collecting and validating all recorded and other information on the nature and properties of the wastes actually in a site. The purpose is to determine whether a hazardous situation actually exists. Stated simply, is there a potential for harm to health and the environment when considering the materials present ... 

Exposure Levels in Environmental Media. Limited, mostly outdated, data were available regarding the detection of acrolein in the environment. Information on exposure to acrolein in air in urban areas, rural areas, near hazardous waste disposal sites, as well as in water (specifically, drinking water supplied from groundwater downgradient from hazardous waste disposal sites and contaminated surface waters) and soil at waste disposal sites would be useful. Monitoring air and water over a 1-year period would provide some indication of seasonal variations. 

The release of PCAs into the environment could occur during production, storage, transportation, industrial use, and carry-off on manufactured products. Release could also occur due to release from plastics, paints, and sealants in which they are incorporated, leaching, runoff, or volatilization from landfill, sewage sludge amended soils, or other waste disposal sites. Of these, however, the major releases are thought to be from production and from industrial usage [2,3,21,22]. 

Over 80% of industrial wastes, much of which can be classified as hazardous, are disposed of in landfills. Many chemicals enter the environment directly as a result of accidents, spills, or leakage from industrial facilities and waste disposal sites. In the past, contaminated wastes were buried, burned, or chemically treated in place. These treatments are costly, have limited effectiveness, and are difficult to regulate. Landfill and in situ fixation do not destroy waste, and landfilling only changes the place of residence delaying future liability. Contamination of the environment has placed many of our vulnerable resources (e.g., groundwater, wet lands, fisheries, and agricultural lands) at risk. 

Dinitrophenols are released to the environment primarily during their manufacture and use, and from waste disposal sites that contain dinitrophenols (Games and Hites 1977 HSDB 1994 McLuckey et al. 1985 Patil and Shinde 1988). Dinitrophenols also form in the atmosphere from the reaction of benzene with NO in ambient air (Nojima et al. 1983). Significant removal of dinitrophenols from the atmosphere due to photochemical or other chemical reactions is not likely. Dry and wet deposition of particulate dinitrophenols are the two significant removal processes in the air (Alber et al. 1989 Capel et al. 1991 Levsen et al. 1990). Neither photochemical nor other chemical processes have been identified that are significant for the transformation/degradation of dinitrophenols in natural waters (Callahan et al. 1979 Lipczynska-Kochany 1992 Tratnyek and Hoigne 1991 Tratnyek et al. 

M.R. Allen, A. Braithwaite, and C.C. Hills, Trace Organic Compounds in Landfill Gas at Seven UK Waste Disposal Sites, Environ. Sci. Technol. 31(4), 1054-1061, Apr. (1997). 

Raghavan, R. Coles, E Dietz, D. Cleaning Excavated Soil Using Extraction Agents A State-of the-Art Review EPA/600 -89/034, U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Labwatory Cincinnati, OH, 1989. Handbook for Remedial Action at Waste Disposal Sites EPA-625/6-82-0(, U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory Cincinnati, OH, 1982. 

Determining the release rate of unattenuated or poorly attenuated contaminants from the disposal site to surface water or groundwater (aquifer) is a necessary step in evaluating a waste disposal site. A decision must be made as to which ions must be attenuated totally and which could be released to the environment in the primary movement of contaminants (Cartwright et al., 1977). A properly designed and operated site promotes the dilution of contaminants by restricting the rate of their release into the environment to some acceptable level at which the concentrations in the receiving natural waters will remain below an acceptable maximum. 

---