Electric vehicles requirements

While the zinc/chlorine battery is preferred for utility load-leveling applications [49], the zinc/bromine system is the more promising one for electric vehicle requirements [50, 51]. 

Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Describes a vehicle meeting either the EPA s CFV ZEV standards or CARET s California Low-Emission Vehicle Program ZEV standards. ZEV standards, usually met with electric vehicles, require zero vehicle emissions. 

FM4. Incomplete charging. Batteries operated under partial-state-of-charge duty (as experienced in remote-area power supplies and hybrid electric vehicles) require a periodic full charge in order to maintain capacity. 

If the loading duration of the battery is considered, it is evident that a potential buyer would seriously ask himself what would happen the next morning, in the case he would have forget to charge the battery. This emphasizes the fact that many car makers do not seem to take seriously the fact that an electric vehicle requires new and innovative encompassing concepts rather than just introducing a battery into a car with a conventional architecture. 

Li-ion batteries are widely used for consumer electronic devices such as cellular phones and portable computers. Although their high-voltage, portability, and excellent cyclability have contributed to their commercial success, new applications such as hybrid electric vehicles require a high-charge/discharge-rate capability. 

The future use of lead may be decided by the resolution of an environmental paradox. Some markets for lead are being phased out because of environmental concerns, eg, the use of tetraethyllead as a gasoline additive. However, a 1990 State of California law and similar laws in nine eastern U.S. states require that 2% of new cars meet 2ero-emission standards in 1998. By 2003 this requirement rises to 10% of new vehicles. Zero emission vehicles are generally accepted to mean electric, ie, battery powered cars, and there is considerable research effort to bring suitable electric vehicles to market by 1998. 

In the 1990s, the use of batteries in electric vehicles and for load leveling is being revived partly for environmental reasons and partly because of scarce energy resources. Improvements in battery performance and life, fewer maintenance requirements, and automatic control systems are making these appHcations feasible. Research and development is ongoing all over the world to develop improved lead—acid batteries as weU as other systems to meet these needs. 

Though sodium-sulfur batteries have been under development for many years, major problems still exists with material stability. It is likely that the first commercial uses of this batteiy will not be for electric vehicles. Sodium-sulfur storage batteries may be more well-suited for hybrid electric vehicles or as part of a distributed energy resources system to provide power ill remote areas or to help meet municipal peak power requirements. 

Nickel-Hydrogen, Nickel-Iron, and Nickel-Metal Hydride. First developed for communication satellites in the early 1970s, nickel-hydrogen batteries are durable, require low maintenance, and have a long life expectancy. The major disadvantage is the high initial cost. For these batteries to be a viable option for electric vehicles, mass production techniques will have to be developed to reduce the cost. 

Power system planners need to consider how the costs associated with electric vehicles should he passed along to consumers. Fortunately from a load balancing perspective, it is likely that most EV charging will occur in off-peak periods. Charging in off-peak periods would reduce utility costs and therefore should allow utilities to reduce customer rates, but this would require time of day metering that is not available in most service areas. 

At present batteries worth more than 30 billion USD are produced every year and the demand is still increasing rapidly as more and more mobile electronic end electric devices ranging from mobile phones to electric vehicles are entering into our life. The various materials required to manufacture these batteries are mostly supplied by the chemical industry. Ten thousands of chemists, physicists and material scientists are focusing on the development of new materials for energy storage and conversion. As the performance of the battery system is in many cases a key issue deciding the market success of a cordless product there is in fact a kind of worldwide race for advanced batteries. 

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) have attracted great interest as a primary power source for electric vehicles or residential co-generation systems. However, both the anode and cathode of PEFCs usually require platinum or its alloys as the catalyst, which have high activity at low operating temperatures (<100 °C). For large-scale commercialization, it is very important to reduce the amount of Pt used in fuel cells for reasons of cost and limited supply. 

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