Convulsions therapy

Sociocultural, illness, and biological factors affect individual attitudes towards psychotropic medications. Health beliefs or explanatory models, particularly causal attributions regarding the illness and the treatment options afforded within such models, exert a profound influence on patients attitudes and behavior regarding medications (Smith, Lin Mendoza, 1993). Such effects can be subtle and can occur during the course of treatment even if there has been initial successful negotiation about the nature of the illness and treatment. In psychiatric illness little research has been leveled at the personal meaning that patients bring to treatment practices such as electro-convulsive therapy (ECT), oral medications, and depot injections, or to the transition between different administrative routes and types of medications. 

The place of the dmg in dentistry [153 4] and in electro-convulsive therapy [ 154] (with a description of a technique to surmount difficulties arising from the concurrent use ot suxamethonium) has been evaluated. A refined radio telemetric technique has enabled a detailed study [155] of the cardiovascular effects of propanidid to be made, resulting in strong evidence for a transient procainamide- or quinidine-like depression of myocardial conductive tissue. The above publications [150-5] quote a large number of relevant references. 

Forssman, H. (1955) Follow-up study of sixteen children whose mothers were given electric convulsive therapy during gestation. Acta Psychiatr Neurol Scand 30 437—441. 

Anderson SMP, Godfrey PP, Grahame-Smith DG The effects of phorbol esters and lithium on 5-HT release in rat hippocampal slices. Br J Pharmacol 93 96P, 1988 Andrade C, Gangadhar BN, Swaminath G, et al Predicting the outcome of endogenous depression following electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy 4 169-174, 1988... 

Baxter LR, Phelps ME, Mazziotti JC, et al Cerebral metabohc rates for glucose in mood disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42 441-447, 1985 Baxter LR Jr, Thompson JM, Schwartz JM, et al. Trazodone treatment response in obsessive-compulsive disorder—correlated with shifts in glucose metabolism in the caudate nuclei. Psychopathology 20 (suppl 1 114-122, 1987 Beale MD, Kellner CH, Pritchett JT, et al Stimulus dose-titration in ECT a 2-year clinical experience. Convulsive Therapy 10 171-176, 1994 Beale MD, Kellner CH, Pritchett JT, et al ECT for OCD. J Clin Psychiatry 56 81-82, 1995... 

Calev A, Eink M, Petrides G, et al Caffeine pretreatment enhances clinical efficacy and reduces cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy 9 95-100, 1993... 

Clark CP, Alexopoulos GS, Kaplan J Prolactin and clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy in depressed geriatric inpatients a preliminary report. Convulsive Therapy 11 24-31, 1995... 

Devanand DP, Shapira B, Petty F, et al Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on plasma GABA. Convulsive Therapy 11 3-13, 1995 DeVane CL Pharmacokinetics of the newer antidepressants clinical relevance. Am J Med 97 (suppl6A) 13S-23S, 1994... 

Enns M, Karvelas L Electrical dose titration for electroconvulsive therapy a comparison with dose prediction methods. Convulsive Therapy 11 86-93, 1995... 

Kim SW, Dysken MW, Pandey GN, et al Platelet 3H-imipramine binding sites in OC behavior. Biol Psychiatry 30 467-474, 1991 Kindler S, Shapira B, Hadjez J, et al Factors influencing response to bilateral electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. Convulsive Therapy 7 245-254, 1991... 

Kroessler D Relative efficacy rates for therapies of delusional depression. Convulsive Therapy 1 173-182, 1985... 

Maletzky B, McFarland B, Burt A Refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder and ECT. Convulsive Therapy 10 1 34-42, 1994 Malgaroh A FTP expression hanging like a yo-yo Semin Cell Biol 5 231-241, 1994 Mahzia AL, Bridges PK The management of treatment-resistant affective disorder clinical perspectives. J Psychopharmacol 6 145-155, 1992... 

Muir JL, Dunnett SB, Robbins TW, et al Attentional functions of the forebrain cholinergic systems effects of intraventricular hemichohnium, physostigmine, basal forebrain lesions and intracortical grafts on a multiple-choice serial reaction time task. Exp Brain Res 89 611-622, 1992 Mukherjee S Mechanisms of the antimanic effect of electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy 5 227-243, 1989... 

Mukherjee S, Sackeim HA, Lee C Unilateral ECT in the treatment of manic episodes. Convulsive Therapy 4 74-80, 1988... 

Nobler MS, Sackeim HA Augmentation strategies in electroconvulsive therapy a synthesis. Convulsive Therapy 9 331-351, 1993 Nobler MS, Sackeim HA Electroconvulsive therapy clinical and biological aspects, in Prediction of Treatment Response in Mood Disorders. Edited by Goodnick P. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1996, pp 177-198 Nobler MS, Sackeim HA, Solomou M, et al EEG manifestations during ECT effects of electrode placement and stimulus intensity. Biol Psychiatry 34 321-330, 1993 Nobler MS, Sackeim HA, Prohovnik 1, et al Regional cerebral blood flow in mood disorders. III treatment and clinical response. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51 884-897, 1994... 

Sackeim HA, Long J, Luber B, et al Physical properties of the ECT stimulus, 1 basic principles. Convulsive Therapy 10 93-123, 1994 Sackeim HA, Devanand DP, Nobler MS Electroconvulsive therapy, in Psychopharmacology The Fourth Generation of Progress. Edited by Bloom E, Kupfer D. New York, Raven, 1995, pp 1123-1141 Sackeim HA, Luber B, Kutzman GP, et al The effects of electroconvulsive therapy on quantitative electroencephalograms relationship to chnical outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53 814-824, 1996... 

Zis AP, Grof P, Webster M, et al The cyclicity of affective disorders and its modifications by drugs. Psychopharmacol Bull 16 47-49, 1980 Zis AP, McGarvey KA, Clark CM, et al Effect of stimulus energy on electroconvulsive therapy-induced prolactin release. Convulsive Therapy 9 23-27, 1993... 

The use of electrical stimulation to induce therapeutic seizures is the safest and most efficient form of convulsive therapy (e.g., as compared with pharmacoconvulsive therapy). In 1938, Cerletti and Bini ( 3) were the first to attempt this approach, and until the introduction of effective pharmacotherapy, ECT remained the primary treatment for more severe mood and psychotic episodes. Since then, however, this somatic therapy has been relegated to a secondary role, usually attempted after trials with standard psychotropics (e.g., antidepressants, antipsychotics, lithium, and other mood stabilizers, often in multiple combinations) have proved inadequate. 

Fink M. New technology in convulsive therapy a challenge in training. Am J Psychiatry 1987 144 1195-1198. 

West ED. Electric convulsion therapy in depression a double blind controlled trial. BMJ 1981 1 155-357. 

Alexander RC, Salomon M, lonesca-Pioggia M, et al. Convulsive therapy in the treatment of mania McLean Hospital. Convuls Ther 1988 4 115-125. 

Thorpe FT. Intensive electrical convulsive therapy in acute mania. J Mental Sa 1947 93 89-92. 

In addition to locomotor activity, delta opioid agonists produce convulsions in mice [41,43], rats [34,35], and monkeys [44 46], In the past, chemical-induced convulsions induced by camphor or pentylenetetrazol (Metrazol) were used as treatments for depression today, however, ECT is the only convulsant therapy used because the treatment-induced effects are less unpleasant than those produced by chemical convulsants [47]. ECS was demonstrated to have antidepressant-like effects in the forced swim test in rats [3], and ECT is a very effective treatment for depression in humans. Based on these observations, it was proposed that delta opioid agonists produce antidepressant-like effects tough a convulsive- or electroconvulsive shock (ECS)-like mechanism of action [41]. 

Fink, M. 1979, Convulsive Therapy Theory and Practice. Raven Press, New York. 

Kalinowsky, L. Worthing, H. J. 1943, Results with electric convulsive therapy in 200 cases of schizophrenia, Psychiatr.Quarterly, vol. 17, pp. 144-153. 

Ross, J. Malzberg, B. 1939, A review of the results of the pharmacological shock therapy and the metrazol convulsive therapy in New York State., Am.. Psychiatry, vol. 96, pp. 297-316. 

Cameron, D. G. (1994, Winter/Spring). ECT Sham statistics, the myth of convulsive therapy and the case for consumer misinformation. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 15, 177—198. 

Fink, M. (1966). Cholinergic aspects of convulsive therapy. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 142, 475-484. 

Fink, M. (1974). Induced seizures and human behavior. In M. Fink, S. Kety, J. McGaugh, T. Williams (Eds.), Psychobiology of convulsive therapy. New York John Wiley Sons. 

Milstein, V., Small, J. G., Small, I. E, Green, G. E. (1986). Does electroconvulsive therapy prevent suicide Convulsive Therapy, 2, 3-6. 

Conti B, Maier R, Barr AM, Morale MC, Lu X, Sanna PP, et al. Region-specific transcriptional changes following the three antidepressant treatments electro-convulsive therapy, sleep deprivation and fluoxetine. Mol. Psychiatry 2007 12 167-189. 

When bipolar patients present in a depressive episode, initial treatment with a mood stabilizer is recommended (Post, 2000). If a depressed bipolar does not respond to treatment with a mood stabilizer, an antidepressant is prescribed. Most patients with bipolar disorder end up on multiple medications. Elech o-convulsive therapy is an effective treatment for bipolar disorder in both the manic and depressed phases of the illness. 

Non-Pharmacological Therapies Electro-Convulsive Therapy and Sleep Deprivation... 

Fink, H. Effect of an anticholinergic agent, Diethazine, on BEG and behavior Significance for theory of convulsive therapy. Arch. Neurol. Psychlat. 80 380-387, 1959b. 

British Medical Bulletin 57 179-192 Fink M 2001 Convulsive therapy a review of the first 55 years. Journal of Affective Disorders 63 1-15... 

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