Cadmium toxicity chronic

Scheuhammer AM. 1987. The chronic toxicity of aluminum, cadmium, mercury, and lead in birds a review. Environ Pollut 46 263-295. 

Kumada, H., S. Kimura, and M. Yokote, and Y. Matida. 1973. Acute and chronic toxicity, uptake and retention of cadmium in freshwater organisms. Bull. Freshwater Fish. Res. Lab. (Tokyo) 22 157-165. 

Pickering, Q.H. and M. Gast. 1972. Acute and chronic toxicity of cadmium to the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Jour. Fish. Res. Board Canada 29 1099-1106. 

Winner, R.W. and J.D. Gauss. 1986. Relationship between chronic toxicity and bioaccumulation of copper, cadmium and zinc as affected by water hardness and humic acid. Aquat. Toxicol. 8 149-161. 

Cadmium, Zinc TT assessment of their acute and chronic toxicity to two Hydra species. I,I (Holdway et al., 2001)... 

Sae-Ma, B., Meier, P.G. and Landrum, P.F. (1998) Effect of extended storage time on the toxicity of sediment-associated cadmium on midge larvae Chironomus tentans), Ecotoxicology 7 (3), 133-139. Sakai, M. (2001) Chronic toxicity tests with Daphnia magna for examination of river water quality,... 

Green DWJ, Williams KA, Pascoe D. 1986. The acute and chronic toxicity of cadmium to different life history stages of the freshwater crustacean Asellus aquaticus (L.). Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 15 465-471. 

Anwar RA, Langham RF, Hoppert CA, et al. 1961. Chronic toxicity studies III. Chronic toxicity of cadmium and chromium in dogs. Arch Environ Health 3 456-460. 

The objective of this chapter is to put into perspective some of the current knowledge with respect to trace metals and their health implications. Potential adverse health effects of occupational exposures to trace metals are dis cussed cancer (arsenic, beryllium chromium nickel, and perhaps cadmium) chronic lung disease (beryllium and cadmium) neurologic and reproductive disorders (lead and mercury) and kidney disorders (lead and cadmium). Also discussed are the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended standards for occupational exposure to several trace metals, the difficulty of establishing safe levels of exposure (particularly for carcinogens), and problems involved in identifying toxic components of trade name products. Special attention is given to the role of chemists to help protect the public health. 

Cadmium inhibits plasma membrane calcium channels and Ca -ATPases. It also inhibits repair of DNA damaged by various chemicals, an effect which is believed to be associated with the induction of tumors. Although cadmium forms a metallothionein, the preformed cadmium metallothionein is nephrotoxic (toxic to the kidneys) it is suggested that effects occur when, at some stage in the kidney, the cadmium is dissociated from the metallothionein. In Itai-Itai disease (see Chronic Toxicity, Human section), patients were found to have chromosome abnormalities. 

Waalkes MP and Rehm S (1994) Chronic toxic and carcinogenic effects of cadmium chloride in male DBA/2NCr and NFS/NCr mice strain-dependent association with tumors of the hematopoietic system, injection site, liver, and lung. Fundam Appl Toxicol 23 21-31. 

Human exposure to high concentrations of cadmium are rare and current concern centers around the chronic toxicity caused by long-term exposure to low levels of the metal. Bone disorders are one manifestation of chronic cadmium exposure. Cadmium is present in all tissues of adults, with the most significant amounts found in the liver and kidney, and the concentrations tend to increase with age. The WHO regards a tolerable daily intake of cadmium to be 70pgd for an adult of 70 kg. 

Poisons can be acute (with immediate effect, e.g., hydrogen cyanide (HCN)) or chronic (referring to the systemic damage done after repeated exposure to low concentrations over long periods of time, e.g., heavy metals like mercury, lead, cadmium and also vinyl chloride). The chemicals most often associated with chronic toxicity are also carcinogens (e.g., benzene, cadmium compounds), which are problematic because when, if at all, the... 

Heavy metal ions are perhaps the most common of all water pollutants. The heavy metals include such frequendy encountered elements as lead and mercury, as well as many less common ones like cadmium, chromium, nickel, and copper. These metals can, at times, be acutely toxic, causing immediate symptoms, but often they are chronically toxic in very small quantities. Chronic toxicity is characterized by nagging symptoms that lessen normal body functions. Inadequate disposal of wastes from mining or industrial activities causes these metals to find their way into water supplies. In addition, some farming activities and the disposal of household wastes can contribute to the presence of heavy metals in our water supplies. 

An analogous equation for the final chronic value may be calculated by simply dividing the equation for the final acute value by the final acute/chronic ratio. However, if there is evidence that there is a difference in the functional dependence of chronic toxicity and acute toxicity on water quality characteristics such as temperature and hardness, then the final chronic equation may be determined independently of the final acute equation. In the case of cadmium, for example, chronic toxicity appears to be less sensitive to water hardness than acute toxicity appears to be, thus a final fi eshwater chronic equation was developed solely from chronic toxicity studies performed with 16 fi eshwater species. The final chronic equation for dissolved cadmium in fi eshwater is... 

Besser, J.M., C.A. Mebane, D.R. Mount, et al. 2007. Sensitivity of mottled sculpins (Cottus bairdi) and rainbow tront Onchorhynchus mykiss) to acute and chronic toxicity of cadmium, copper, and zinc. Environ Toxicol. Chem. 26 1657-1665. 

Cerium sulfide pigments also show no genotoxic or carcinogenicity effects. Bacterial and in vitro gene mutation assays (OECD 471 476) fail to show mutagenic activity. In vitro chromosomal aberration tests (OECD 473) show no clastogenic activity. Additionally, sub-chronic toxicity (28 day, OECD 407) studies show no significant adverse effects (dose of 150 mg/kg/day), unlike cadmium and some other pig-ments . ... 

Several lab studies have examined effects from single metal exposure to birds. Eggs from adults dosed with arsenic have been examined for accumulation and effects 109). Eggs have been dosed with lead followed by embryo examination for effects 101). Although Beyer et al. 42) did not examine multiple metals, they did examine the uptake and biological effects of six avian species dosed with lead. The dose dependent distributions and effects of lead, selenium and cadmium have been examined in several species 72, 98, 110). Scheiihammer 83) reviews numerous studies examining chronic toxicity of several metals. 

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