Biomarkers for exposure

Brouwer, A. (1996). Biomarkers for exposure and effect assessment of dioxins and PCBs. In lEH Report on The use of Biomarkers in Environmental Exposure Assessment Institute Environmental Health, Leicester, U.K. 51-58. 

Sometimes orthogonal offline SPE steps were used prior to online SPE LC/MS/MS. These preparation steps were used to remove interference and concentrate samples. In an application to measure urinary N7-(benzo[a]pyren-6-yl)guanine (BP-6-N7Gua), a biomarker for exposure to polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a two-step offline SPE was first performed using Sep-Pak C8 (Waters, Milford, Massachusetts) and Strata SCX (Phenomenex, Torrance, California) cartridges to obtain high sensitivity (Chen et al. 2005). The extracts were applied to an online reversed phase SPE LC/MS system. The lower limit of detection was 2.5 fmol/mL when 10 mL of urine was used. 

No information is available on whether biomarkers for exposure or effect of -hexane validated in adults (exhaled -hexane, 2,5-hexanedion in urine) also are valid for children. Interactions of -hexane with other chemicals have not been reported in children, but have occurred in adults (Altenkirch et al. 1977). Since interactions in adults are dependent on toxickinetic parameters, predicting interactions in children requires greater understanding of the metabolism of -hexane in children. 

Methods for Determining Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect. Besides environmental exposure, exposure to cyanide can also occur from consumption of cyanide-containing food, metabolism of certain drugs, and smoking cigarettes. Since so many factors can influence cyanide exposure, the exact correlation between cyanide concentrations in the body and its level in the environment has not been made. Therefore, measuring cyanide and/or thiocyanate levels in blood and urine cannot be used as a biomarker for exposure to low cyanide concentrations. Analytical methods of required sensitivity and reliability to detect cyanide and thiocyanate in blood, plasma, and urine of both unexposed and exposed persons are available (see Table 6-1 and Table 6-3). Further studies determining biomarkers for exposure to low cyanide concentrations would be useful. 

For some substances, information on some toxicological endpoints is available from clinical and physiological investigations such as provocation tests for detecting allergy, lung function tests, and analyses of biochemical parameters and biomarkers for exposure or effects. 

In occupational settings, the concentrations of chemicals are often monitored in the working environment to monitor compliance with occupational exposure limits as required by various national laws. Moreover, medical surveys of workers are often performed including analyses of biomarkers for exposure and/or effects. In addition, workers also generally have the possibility to report signs and symptoms of nuisances related to their working environment. Such data, which in some cases are available in the open literamre, are relevant for use in a hazard assessment. 

Murk, A. J., Leonards, P.E.G., VanHattum, B., Luit, R., Van der Weiden, M., Smit, M.D. (1998). Application of biomarkers for exposure and effects of polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons in naturally exposed European otters (Lutra lutra). Environ Toxicol Phar-macol 6 91—102. 

Kharasch ED et al Compound A uptake and metabolism to mercapturic acids and 3,3,3-trifluoro-2-fluoromethoxypropanoic acid during low-flow sevoflurane anesthesia Biomarkers for exposure, risk assessment, and interspecies comparison. Anesthesiology 1999 91 1267. [PMID 10551576]... 

Effect There are a number of biomarkers of exposure for white phosphorus. Most of these biomarkers are not unique for white phosphorus however, the combination of biomarkers of effect for several targets may be specific for white phosphorus. Studies that identified unique biomarkers for exposure and effect would be useful. 

Boogaard, P.J. and Van Sittert, N.J., Suitability of S-phenyl mercapturic acid and lrans-lrans-muconic acid as biomarkers for exposure to low concentrations of benzene, Environ. Health Perspect. Suppl., 104, 1151-1157, 1996. 

Exposure Levels in Humans. Biomarkers for exposure to tetryl, especially metabolic products need to be identified so that biological monitoring studies can be conducted. Data are needed both for occupationally exposed populations and for populations living in the vicinity of Army ammunition plants and hazardous waste sites. These data would aid in evaluating the extent of human exposure. 

There are no known specific biomarkers for exposure to ammonia. Plasma concentrations cannot serve this purpose, as relatively large amounts of ammonia are produced endogenously. Previously discussed studies (Schaerdel et al. 1983 Silverman et al. 1949) have demonstrated that inhalation of relatively high concentrations of ammonia do not significantly alter blood or urinary ammonia. Biomarkers of effect from ammonia exposure are limited to resultant tissue injuries from contact with the irritant gas. Unfortunately, the lesions are nonspecific and are consistent with exposure to other irritant gasses and caustic compounds. 

Day, A.J. Williamson, G. 2001. Biomarkers for exposure to dietary flavonoids a review of the current evidence for identification of quercetin glycosides in plasma. Br. J. Nutr. 86 S105 SllO. 

The induction of Cytochrome P-450 forms in fish has been well characterized and considered as a biomarker for exposure to PAHs, PCBs, and other toxic compounds [42-44]. Such induction in fish from contamination has been... 

Johnson NF, Carpenter TR, Jaramillo RJ, et al. 1997. DNA damage-inducible genes as biomarkers for exposures to environmental agents. Environ Health Perspect Suppl 105 913-918. 

Determination of 4,4/-methylenedianiline (5a) in hydrolyzed human urine may serve as a biomarker for exposure to methylenebis(4-phenyl isocyanate) produced on thermal degradation of polyurethane foam. The urine is hydrolyzed with H2SO4 and 4,4 -methylenedianiline (5a) is derivatized to the corresponding pentafluoropropionamide. 

COtinine [inn] is an alkaloid from leaf tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and is also detected in Duboisia hopwoodii (Solanaceae). It is a nicotine metabolite, used as a biomarker for exposure to cigarette smoke. It shows ANTIDEPRESSANT and other behavioural effects in animals, cothromboplastin factorVII. 

What is a key biomarker for exposure to chemically induced estrogen activity ... 

Tyler, C.R., B. van der Eerden, S. Jobling, G. Panter and J.P. Sumpter. Measurement of vitellogenin, a biomarker for exposure to estrogenic chemicals, in a wide variety of cyprinid fish. J. Comp. Physiol. 166B 418-426, 1996. 

Development of biomarkers for exposure is complicated by the fact that the metabolism of many xenobiotics can result in formaldehyde production in vivo. Carbon tetrachloride, endrin, paraquat, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (Shara et al. 1992), and dichloromethane (Dekant and Vamvakas... 

In an analysis of B[a]P and coal tar pitch volatiles in workplace air conducted by Ny et al. (1993), urine samples were analyzed for the pyrene metabolite 1-hydroxypyrene, and a high correlation between levels of this biomarker and PAH air levels was observed. Analyses were also conducted by HPLC with fluorescence detection. Tolos et al. (1990) reported results of 1-hydroxypyrene urinalysis for aluminum reduction plant workers, and showed a strong positive correlation between the compound and 17 environmental PAHs. This work verified the choice by earlier researchers (Jongeneelen et al. 1988) of the pyrene metabolite as a useful marker of exposure to PAHs. Elovaara et al. (1995) also demonstrated the usefulness of 1-hydroxypyrene as a biomarker for exposure to naphthalene and 10 other PAHs for creosote impregnation plant workers. Particulate PAHs were Soxhlet extracted with cyclohexane and analyzed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. 

Methods for Determining Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect. No known unique biomarkers for exposure or effects exist for ammonia. Until one has been identified, methodology for the determination of biomarkers must be preceded by an experimental determination of a unique biomarker of human exposure or effect. 

Clara cell protein CC16 is a potential biomarker for exposure to MMT, because the protein decreases in both BALE and serum following MMT exposure (Halateket al. 1998 Bernard and Hermans 1997), possibly due to decreased synthesis and/or protein secretion due to loss of producing cells (Halatek et al. 1998). The protein can be quantified in serum or urine, but no dose-response studies on the potential biomarker have been performed. 

Becker (2004). Becker LC, Dickey RW, Poli MA, et al. Development of a biomarker for exposure to ciguatera toxins. 11th International Conference on Harmful Algal Blooms, Cape Town, South Africa, 2004. Benoit (2002). Benoit E, Mattei C, Ouanounou G, et al. Ionic mechanisms involved in the nodal swelling of myelinated axons caused by marine toxins. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2002 7(2) 317-321. 

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