Before pipeline

Before Pipeline Pilot, retrieval of assay data (for us) was done mainly via RS3 for Excel (5). RS3 allows one to obtain information on a given assay or a set of assays with queries that are set up by clicking on the folders containing... 

A simplified example is shown in Figure lb. First, natural gas from the pipeline (which has already been cleaned of sulfur before pipeline injection) is converted to syngas with a H2 CO molar ratio of about 2 1 by various methods such as autothermal re-forming (using steam and potentially recycled CO2) or by partial oxidation [11]. Depending on the strategy employed, natural gas is converted to a mixture of H2, CO, CO2, and H2O through the WGS reaction (8) and reactions such as ... 

The shale oil produced is a viscous material that required hydrogenation to eliminate sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen, to reduce its viscosity, and to Improve its stability. The hydrogenation will be done at the production site to improve the properties of the shale oil before pipelining to a refinery. Hydrogenated shale oil is a reasonable substitute for crude oil, and still requires refining. 

To prepare gas for evacuation it is necessary to separate the gas and liquid phases and extract or inhibit any components in the gas which are likely to cause pipeline corrosion or blockage. Components which can cause difficulties are water vapour (corrosion, hydrates), heavy hydrocarbons (2-phase flow or wax deposition in pipelines), and contaminants such as carbon dioxide (corrosion) and hydrogen sulphide (corrosion, toxicity). In the case of associated gas, if there is no gas market, gas may have to be flared or re-injected. If significant volumes of associated gas are available it may be worthwhile to extract natural gas liquids (NGLs) before flaring or reinjection. Gas may also have to be treated for gas lifting or for use as a fuel. 

The gas processing options described in the previous section were designed primarily to meet on-site usage or evacuation specifications. Before delivery to the customer further processing would normally be carried out at dedicated gas processing plants, which may receive gas from many different gas and oil fields. Gas piped to such plants is normally treated to prevent liquid drop out under pipeline conditions (dew point control) but may still contain considerable volumes of natural gas liquids (NGL) and also contaminants. 

The legs of the platform can be used as settling tanks or temporary storage facilities for crude oil where oil is exported via tankers, or to allow production to continue in the event of a pipeline shut down. The Brent D platform in the North Sea weighs more than 200,000 tonnes and can store over a million barrels of oil. Topside modules are either installed offshore by lift barges, or can be positioned before the platform is floated out. 

When constmction is complete, the pipeline must be tested for leaks and strength before being put into service industry code specifies the test procedures. Water is the test fluid of choice for natural gas pipelines, and hydrostatic testing is often carried out beyond the yield strength in order to reHeve secondary stresses added during constmction or to ensure that all defects are found. Industry code limits on the hoop stress control the test pressures, which are also limited by location classification based on population. Hoop stress is calculated from the formula, S = PD/2t, where S is the hoop stress in kPa (psig) P is the internal pressure in kPa (psig), and D and T are the outside pipe diameter and nominal wall thickness, respectively, in mm (in.). 

Corrosion. Anticorrosion measures have become standard ia pipeline desiga, coastmctioa, and maintenance ia the oil and gas iadustries the principal measures are appHcation of corrosion-preventive coatings and cathodic protection for exterior protection and chemical additives for iaterior protectioa. Pipe for pipelines may be bought with a variety of coatiags, such as tar, fiber glass, felt and heavy paper, epoxy, polyethylene, etc, either pre-apphed or coated and wrapped on the job with special machines as the pipe is lowered iato the treach. An electric detector is used to determine if a coatiag gap (hoHday) exists bare spots are coated before the pipe is laid (see Corrosion and corrosion control). 

AH gas-fired power plants require oxygen analy2ers to ensure that air has not been drawn into the piping system. Oxygen intake can lead to the presence of an explosive mixture in the pipeline before the fuel reaches the burner or combustor 2one. When gas-fired units are located in an enclosed area, multiple ultraviolet flame detectors are used to shut down equipment and flood the area with CO2 or a chemical fire suppressant whenever a spark or flame is detected. 

Filtration and water-knockout systems are used to clean up the gas before it enters a compressor. Cooling systems are sometimes required to maintain compressor discharge temperatures below 54°C to avoid damage to the pipeline s protective coatings. Automated compressor stations are typically staffed by maintenance and repair personnel eight hours per day, five days per week. Other stations are staffed on a 24-hour basis because personnel must start, stop, and regulate compressors in response to orders from the dispatch office. 

Before the creation of the U.S. DOT in 1967, the now defunct ICC was authorized to prescribe rules and regulations for rad, tmck, and pipeline safety. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) was responsible for air safety, and the U.S. Coast Guard for safety on the inland and coastal waterways. Upon estabHshment of DOT in 1967, the FAA and Coast Guard were transferred to the DOT, which assumed the safety functions the ICC formerly adrninistered. 

A 437 km slurry pipeline, 46 cm in diameter, was started in 1970 to move coal from Arizona to southern Nevada. The coal is cmshed and ground to the fineness needed for proper viscosity and settiing. About 18—20% is —325 mesh (<44 //m), 35—45% is —100 mesh (<149 //m), and 0—2% is + 14 (<1070 fim) mesh. The soflds content of the slurries has approached 70% using additives to stabilize the mixture. The slurry is dewatered with centrifuges before combustion of the coal. 

There are many reasons that it might be difficult to keep the pipelines full. The most obvious is a data dependency, where a previously initiated computation must pass through all stages of the pipeline before the next operation can be commenced. 

In this example, the evaluation of X and Z can be overlapped within the multiplication pipeline, but work caimot begin on the evaluation of lU until the result of the computation of Z is known. The pipeline must empty, and the result, Z, must be retrieved before the pipeline can be refilled for the evaluation of lU. 

Petroleum pipe hues before 1969 were built to ASA (now ANSI) Standard B31.4 for liquids and Standard B31.8 for gas. These standards were seldom mandatoiy because few states adopted them. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), which now has responsi-bihty for pipe-line regulation, issued Title 49, Part 192—Transportation of Natural Gas and Other Gas by Pipeline Minimum Safety Standards, and Part 195—Transportation of Liquids by Pipehne. These contain considerable material from B31.4 and B31.8. They allow generally higher stresses than the ASME Pressure Vessel Code would allow for steels of comparable strength. The enforcement of their regulations is presently left to the states and is therefore somewhat uncertain. 

Natural gas must meet certain specifications before it qualifies for fuel. It should also meet certain dew point characteristics before entering a transmission pipeline. Water dew point is controlled and maintained by stationary equipment such as molecular sieves or dehydration by glycol. Hydrocarbon dew point, on the other hand, can... 

LNG—consisting of ethane, propane, butane, and natural gasoline (condensate)—arrives at the plant for upgrading before it is sent to petrochemical plants and refineries as feedstock. Residue gas is sold to the interstate and intrastate pipeline network. MESA, one of the world s major crude helium producers, also delivers helium to a pipeline operated by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. 

Probably the largest natural gas proeessing straddle plant in North Ameriea is BP-Amoeo s Empress, Alberta faeility. Here, EPBC (ethane, propane, butanes, and eondensate) are extraeted as liquids from natural gas before the gas is delivered to the TransCanada and Foothills (Saskatehewan) pipelines (Figure 8-5). The term straddle plant refers to the faet that the plant straddles the natural gas pipeline and extraets liquid eomponents before passing the natural gas further along the pipeline. 

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