Viral and bacterial infections

NF-kB Activators Proinflammatory cytokines Bacterial and viral infection Reactive oxygen species... 

The selective stimulation of these cells is of importance because they are the most active effector cells in host defense mechanisms against bacterial and viral infections. 

Although acquired immunity to some parasitic diseases may lower the level of infection, absolute immunity as seen in bacterial and viral infections is seldom seen in parasitic diseases. Since parasitic infections produce a wide variety of antigens because of the many life cycle phases, it is more difficult to identify a constant antigenic protein against which specific antibodies are protective. However, malaria remains a likely candidate for a vaccine and there are ongoing studies to develop one. 

We and others previously identified blood MHCH CDllc+ cells as circulating DC precursors in mice (6,12,13). Blood MHCILCDllc+ cells are classified into only two subtypes B22CTCD1 lc+ mDC precursors and B220+CD1 lc+ pDC precursors. The numbers of both mDC and pDC precursors in naive mouse blood were extremely low but increased greatly in response to danger signals such as bacterial and viral infection (13,14) (Fig. 2). 

Bacterial and viral infections Immunological depression Hemorrhagic and endotoxin shock Altered drug response... 

Arsenicals were ineffective in controlling certain bacterial and viral infections. Mice experimentally infected with bacteria (Klebsiella pneumonias) or viruses (pseudorabies, encephalitis, encephalmyocarditis) showed a significant increase in mortality when treated with large doses of arsenicals compared to nonarsenic-treated groups (NAS 1977 Aranyi et al. 1985). 

St. John s wort has been used to treat a wide range of ailments for more than 2000 years, and is said to have been prescribed by Hippocrates himself. Apart from depression, St. John s wort is being promoted or used as a treatment for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, stress, obsessive-compulsive disorder, sleep problems, nocturnal enuresis, bacterial and viral infections such as HIV-AIDS, respiratory conditions, peptic ulceration, inflammatory arthritis, cancer, and skin wounds (Rey and Walter, 1998 Walter et ah, 2000). It is also said to increase libido, an application dating from the Middle Ages (Fletcher, 1996). No empirical evidence is currently available to support any of these uses. 

Overuse of antibiotics comes from the desire to treat colds and other illnesses caused by viruses rather than bacteria. Unlike bacteria, viruses do not respond to antibiotics. Yet the symptoms of bacterial and viral infections are similar enough that patients often want antibiotics for both. For example, a study from Harvard University reports that more than a million children a year unnecessarily receive antibiotics for sore throats.53 While 15 to 36 percent of children with sore throats have a bacterial streptococcal infection that antibiotics can treat, 54 percent of the children studied received an antibiotic. Other studies report similar overuse among adults for sinus infections. Although only a small portion of sinus infections result from bacteria, most patients visiting physicians for the problem get a prescription for an antibiotic. 

Vitamin A Precursor to rhodopsin, a chemical used for vision assists in inhibiting bacterial and viral infections Night blindness (retinol)... 

Susceptibility to bacterial and viral infections, and to the establishment of tumours, is reported to arise more frequently in those who are depressed than in those who are not. An analysis of the immune systems of those suffering the severe psychological stress of bereavement has shown that the activity of those immune cells that are fundamentally involved in the host defence against infections (e.g. NKCs and T-lymphocytes) is dramatically reduced. Such an effect can occur following chronic and subchronic stress. 

Finally, infections are a special issue. Although bacterial and viral infections do not appear to be increased over placebo rates, at least at lower doses of TNF blocking agents, infections with intracellular bacteria may be exacerbated. Thus, special attention has to be devoted to possible tuberculosis, listeriosis, or fungal infection before and during... 

Despite its lack of specificity, Bik determination has been shown to correlate well (p < 0.01) with other indexes of inflammation, including C-reactive protein (CRP), WBC count, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) [4]. The urine strip is an alternative to a blood CRP measurement. The Bik test was more predictive of upper respiratory and urinary tract infections as well as kidney diseases. Furthermore, it was more sensitive to bacterial and viral infection vs CRP. Because plasma proteins, that is CRP, are not cleared and circulate until hepatic metabolism, urinary Bik appears to be a better predictor of an abnormal WBC, ESR, and neutrophil degranulation. 

Human milk is the best food for babies as it provides all the nutrients needed for about the first 6 months (26 weeks) of life. Moreover, it contains nutrients that are fit for the unique needs of the human infant, such as certain essential polyunsaturated fatty acids and certain milk proteins, as well as Fe in a readily absorbable form. Human milk also contains immunological and bioactive substances, absent from commercial infant formulas, which confer protection from bacterial and viral infections and may aid gut adaptation and development of the newborn. 

Tumour necrosis factor-a (TNFa) accumulates in the brain after trauma. This cytokine is known to be an important factor in delayed CNS damage. It was found that, in addition to its anti-NMDA effect, HU-211 causes up to 90% inhibition of the TNFa surge after closed head injury in rats [195], Bacterial and viral infections of the CNS are known to cause secretion of the TNFa as well as interleukin-1 and other cytokines which are involved in the inflammatory process and may cause secondary damage. Such infections may result in high mortality. It was found that rats infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae suffered less cerebral oedema on treatment with a combination of a suitable antibiotic with HU-211 than the antibiotic alone [196],... 

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