Anatomy of the Kidney

The body fluids do not constitute a homogeneous solution of electrolytes. Body fluids are classically categorized as intracellular and extracellular. The extracellular compartment is further divided into an intra- and extravascular compartment. The intravascular fluid constitutes the blood plasma, but even blood plasma does not form a homogeneous compartment. The composition of plasma varies with anatomical location and physiological conditions. The electrolyte compositions of plasma obtained from venous and arterial blood differ, and there are diurnal variations in the electrolyte concentrations of the plasma. 

The relative proportion of extra- and intracellular fluid has been determined by the dilution technique. Chemicals of known distribution in the body fluids are administered, and the volume of a given fluid compartment can be measured by determining the concentration of these chemicals. For example, Evans blue, bromosulftalein, iodinated albumin, and iodine 131 are used to determine plasma volume. Urea, thiourea, deuterium, and tritiated water are useful for determining the total body fluids. Thiocyanate, iodide, sulfate, mannitol, sucrose, raffmose, chloride 36, chloride 38, and bromide 32 are used to determine extracellular space. 

The division of the body fluid into intra- and extracellular systems is somewhat arbitrary because none of the above methods gives identical results, and thus only an approximate distribution of water and electrolytes is available. 

There are only minor differences between the electrolyte composition of plasma and the rest of the extracellular fluid. The main difference between these two fluid systems resides in the higher protein concentration in plasma. Consequently, electrolyte shifts between the two body systems follow the laws of Don-nan. Thus, the concentration of cations in the various interstitial compartments will indirectly be regulated by the amount of protein in those fluid systems, but in general, the plasma concentration of anions is higher than that of cations. 

The electrolyte concentrations of intra- and extracellular fluids differ in many ways. Among the most significant are the low sodium and chloride concentration and the high potassium concentration in intracellular fluid. These differences in electrolyte composition are not explained, but they do not result from the permeability of the cell membrane to sodium because radioactive sodium is rapidly distributed between extra- and intracellular fluid. Yet after radioactive sodium is injected, the sodium concentrations of the respective fluid systems are not altered. 

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Lote C). Essential anatomy of the kidney. In Lote CJ, ed. Principles of renal physiology, 3rd ed. London Chapman and HaU, 1994 21-9. 

Figure 1. Diagram oj the blood supply and junctional anatomy of the kidney...

Fig. 22.1. PCA and hierarchical clustering example shown on a kidney sample, (a) Optical image of the kidney section prior to matrix application, (b) Scores of first principal component. The image is in agreement with the anatomy of the kidney, with the renal pelvis and part of the cortex showing the hot colors, (c) Clustering result Renal cortex, medulla, and pelvis are defined by the highest level clusters. The advantage of this type of analysis is that the dendrogram nodes can be expanded and highlighted until the desired molecular structure is found. Scale bar 2 mm.

Venkatachalam MA, Kriz W. Anatomy. In Heppinstall RH, ed. Pathology of the Kidney, 4th ed. Boston Little, Brown, 1992 l-92. 

Nephrotoxicity can be a potentially serious complication of drug therapy or chemical exposure. Although in most instances the mechanisms mediating nephrotoxicity are unclear, susceptibility of the kidney to toxic injury appears to be related, at least in part, to the complexities of renal anatomy and physiology. 

Susceptibility of the kidney to chemically-induced toxicity is related, at least in part, to several unique aspects of renal anatomy and physiology. By virtue of high renal blood flow, active transport processes for secretion and reabsorption, and progressive concentration of the glomerular filtrate following water removal during the... 

An understanding of how and why chemicals induce nephrotoxicity requires some familiarity with the anatomy and physiology of the kidney. In addition, interpretation of renal toxicology studies will require a working knowledge of the various techniques used for evaluating renal function. It is also important to be aware of which nephrotoxicants require biotransformation before they induce nephrotoxicity, nephrotoxic mechanisms when known, and the site(s) of renal damage for the various nephrotoxicants. 

Three-dimensional reconstructions can be obtained with both external and endoluminal points of view of the organ anatomy (Rubin et al. 1996 Rubin 2003). Maximum intensity projection (MIP), average intensity projection (AIP), shaded surface display (SSD), perspective volume rendering (VR) and multiplanar volume reconstruction (MPVR) algorithms provide external views of the kidney and urinary tract (Dalrymple et al. 2005). Endoluminal points of view of the urinary tract can be obtained with virtual endoscopy (VE) by using either MRU or the urographic phase of CT. 

Nephrology is the science that concentrates on the kidneys and the associated anatomy, physiology, diseases, and disorders. The improper functioning of the kidney may disrupt electrolyte balance or lead to hypertension (high blood pressure) and is often related to other systemic or congenital conditions. 

Despite recent developments, effectiveness of chemotherapy is still rather limited for most types of cancer, including tumors of the colon, lung, kidney, pancreas, and liver. Why some cancers respond better than others may be explained by factors relating to the anatomy and physiology of the cancer-ridden organ or... 

The anatomy of a nephron is a key to understanding how the kidney functions. Refer to Figure 12 which schematically illustrates each part. The blood enters the kidney through an artery into a knot of vessels known as the glomerulus. The glomerulus is surrounded by a loose... 

The evidence that is available regarding the morbid anatomy of idiopathic hypercalcemia of infancy is naturally derived from severer cases which have proved fatal (D3, L6, Rl, S2). In these, pathological changes are found predominantly in the skeleton, kidneys, and cardiovascular system, but other systems may be involved to a lesser degree. 

AndreollTE. On the anatomy of amphotericin B-cholesterol pores in lipid bilayer membranes. Kidney Int 1973 4 337-45. DeKruijiff B, Demel RA. Polyene antibiotic-sterol interactions in membranes of Acholeplesma laidlawii cellsand lecithin liposomes. III. Molecular structure of the polyene antibiotic-cholesterol complexes. Biochem Biophys Acta 1974 339 57-70. HoIzRW.Theeffectsofthe polyene antibiotics nystatin and amphotericin Bon thin lipid membranes. Ann N Y Acad Sell 974 235 469-79. 

Alcock left Oxford for Bath in 1757 and he was replaced as the anatomy lecturer by John Smith (1721-1796). It is not clear if Smith also replaced Alcock as the chemistry lecturer - it is significant that Francis Bayley went to Edinburgh in exactly this period - but he gave chemistry lectures as part of an anatomy course in 1759. Chemistry came after agriculture, and was only a small part of the course. Smith drew heavily on other authors and he kept the content of his lectures within the medical remit of the course. For example, alkaline salts was largely a discussion of bile and limewater was mentioned for its ability to dissolve kidney stones. This is not to say that he was completely out of touch with contemporary developments. He mentioned Black s MD thesis (which had been published only five years earlier) and Joshua Ward s process for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. It appears that Smith continued to teach chemistry alongside anatomy at least until he was appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry in 1766. ... 

A two-dimensional mapping procedure, involving isoelectric focusing and sodium dodecylsulphate electrophoresis, has been used in a comparative study of the surface anatomy of baby hamster kidney cells and three clones resistant to ricin. Abnormal patterns were observed in all three mutant clones indicating different mechanisms of ricin resistance glycoproteins, which may be involved in cellular reactions, were identified. 

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