Transportation sector, energy

Eor specific applications, we can calculate the ratio of the measure of the goods or sendees provided to the energy input required. For example, in the transportation sector, energy efficiency is based on miles per gallon for personal vehicles, seat-miles per gallon for mass transit, and ton-miles per gallon for freight transportation. 

Sjardin, M., Damen, K.J. and Faaij, A.P.C. (2006) Techno-economic prospects of small-scale membrane reactors in a future hydrogen-fuelled transportation sector. Energy, 31 (14), 2187-2219. 

Larson, E.D. (2006) A review of lifeliquid biofuel systems fitr the transport sector. Energy Sustainable Dev., X, 2. Online available http //www.princeton.edu/pei/energy/ pubUcations/texts / Larson-biofuel-LCA-ESD-June-2006.pdf... 

The benefits of alcohol fuels include increased energy diversification in the transportation sector, accompanied by some energy security and balance of payments benefits, and potential air quaUty improvements as a result of the reduced emissions of photochemically reactive products (see Air POLLUTION). The Clean Air Act of 1990 and emission standards set out by the State of California may serve to encourage the substantial use of alcohol fuels, unless gasoline and diesel technologies can be developed that offer comparable advantages. 

Office of Pohcy, Planning, and Analysis, Assessment of Costs and Benefits ofElexible and Alternative Euel Use in the U.S. Transportation Sector, Technical Report 3 (Methanol Production and Transportation Costs) Pub. DOE/P/E—0093, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., Nov. 

When discussing material outputs of the petroleum refining industry, it is important to note the relationship between the outputs of the industry itself and the outputs resulting from the use of refmery products. Petroleum refineries play an important role in the U.S. economy, supplying approximately 40% of the total energy used in the U.S. and virtually all of the energy consumed in the transportation sector. 

Consumption in the transportation sector historically has been less than either the industrial sector or the residential and commercial sector, but it is of greater concern because consumption is almost entirely petroleum as opposed to a mix of petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. And because electricity can be generated from a number of different sources, and because there is greater opportunity to substitute one source of energy for another in generating electricity, the price and supply security that exists in other sectors does not apply to the transportation sector. 

Because eveiy means of transportation requires energy for propulsion, how energy is used in transportation is something that is carefully tracked by the Office of Transportation Policy Development within the Department of Transportation (DOT). The transportation sector felt the greatest impact from the oil supply disruptions in the 1970s because it was, and continues to be, the sector most dependent on oil. It is also the sector with the least flexibility to switch fuels, (see also Consumption)... 

Unlike the gasoline tax that only impacts the transportation sector, carbon taxes affect all sectors of the economy. Implemented by some European countries and proposed in the United States by the Clinton Administration in 1993, the carbon tax makes consumption of fossil fuels more expensive for the energy user. The goals of a carbon tax are to reduce the consumption of energy and to make non-carbon emitting sources like wind and hydroelectric more cost-competitive with fossil fuels. 

Sion in energy-intensive industry, such as China and India, show relatively unchanging shares of industrial energy use. In other countries, such as Thailand and Mexico, the share and/or growth of the transportation sector dominate. Many smaller countries have remained primarily agrarian societies with modest manufacturing infrastructure. 

In the end, both approaches require the calcination of limestone to lime. The energy penalty in this process is about 4.5-5 GJ/ton of C02, which amounts to a 30-40% energy penalty of a transportation sector that uses air extraction for managing its own C02 emissions. This is comparable to the energy penalty incurred in the conversion of fossil fuels into hydrogen as a transportation fuel (Zeman and Lackner, 2004). 

At the heart of the book stands the question of how the growing energy demand in the transport sector can be met in the long term, when conventional (easy) oil will be running out. Among the principal options are unconventional oil from oil sands or oil shale, synthetic Fischer-Tropsch fuels on the basis of gas or coal, biofuels,... 

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