The development of test methods

A number of scientific publications have emerged since the 1950s, including the work of Doudoroff (1976) and Doudoroff and Katz (1950, 1953) on the use of so-called pickle-jar tests and the effects of industrial wastes. Doudoroff el al. (1951) developed a single-species fish bioassay, Cairns (1956, 1957) reported the physiological effects of temperature changes on fish and Henderson (1957) considered the application of bioassays for the safe disposal of toxic wastes. This early work on fish helped to establish aquatic toxicity testing and was followed quickly by the 

The development of risk assessment procedures identified a need for expert contribution from a range of disciplines to help determine the mechanistic links between exposure and effect, opening up multiple channels of investigation. The 

Bacteria 1990, 1996a 1989a, 1995a, 1998, 2000a,b 1984a Environment Canada 1992c 

Multigroup complex effluents and sediments United States Environmental Protection Agency 1985, 1989a,b, 1991, 1992, 1993a,b,c, 1994b, c, 1995 Environment Canada 1998b, 2000a,b, 2001, 2002 

The following brief review of current practice illustrates the increasing application of bioassays around the world. 

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Recently, there has been increasing interest in the development of test methods to assess the possible adverse functional effects of exposing the fetus, both early and late in gestation (112,113). 

By force of circumstances the manufacturers of mineral wools participated in the development of test methods to distinguish between hazardous and non-critical fibres as well as appropriate criteria for legal classification. A delay in the innovation process was caused by the discussion as to which criteria for the restriction of... 

It becomes clear that there can never be one direction for the development of test methods and apparatus. The perceived deficiencies in the existing methods are viewed differently according to the particular purpose under consideration and, hence, development effort is targeted... 

In this chapter, issues in personal thermal protection are discussed, focusing on the needs of workers in selected sectors energy (oil and gas), electrical, other industry sectors, and both structural and wildland firefighting. The important protection concerns for workers in each sector are discussed, followed by a discussion of potential trade-offs between thermal protection and thermal comfort. Clothing issues such as fit, comfort, and other ergonomic factors are briefly discussed. Recent developments in protective textile materials are followed by a diseussion of serviceability concerns, including durability and maintenance. A review of international performance standards is followed by a summary of the development of test methods to assess protection from heat, flame, hot liquids, and steam. Issues for future development of technical textiles for personal thermal protection are then discussed briefly. 

The need for an understanding of flammability as a potential hazard emerged after the 2nd World War due to the commencement of large-scale applications of plastics. Research into the flammability characteristics of the materials, especially plastics, commenced in the middle fifties. Investigations in the first two decades were practically restricted to the development of test methods for obtaining directly applicable practical values. Purely empirical methods were typical of this period. 

Besides the development of test methods, some relationships between the type of burning material and the smoke density have also been discovered. On this basis, a number of additives are marketed for the suppression of smoke formation from plastics. 

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