Energy sector

Since the early 1990s the United States has imported more oil than it has produced for its own use. And, as the nuclear option became frozen, coal has become the chief source for gcirerating electricity, which itself accounts for about 35 percent of the energy sector. In 1997, 52 percent of electricity produced in the United States was generated from coal and in other recent years the fraction has approached 56 percent. Since the United States accounts for one—quarter of total world energy usage, the increase in coal use in the United States alone has a significant... 

Lewis influence on the U.S. energy sector evolved from his career as a consultant to the petroleum... 

Other energy sector concerns are methane emissions from unburned fuel, and from natural gas leaks at various stages of natural gas production, transmission and distribution. The curtailment of venting and flaring stranded gas (remotely located natural gas sources that are not economical to produce liquefied natural gas or methanol), and more efficient use of natural gas have significantly reduced atmospheric release. But growth in natural gas production and consumption may reverse this trend. Methane has... 

Various provisions m the federal income tax treat energy producers more or less favorably than other businesses. By changing the after-tax rate of return on investments in the energy sector, the Tax Code may alter the long-run supply of specific types of energy. 

To compute taxable income, a taxpayer is permitted to subtract from revenues those expenses that are ncccssai y to create current sales. Expenses related to futnre sales are required to be capitalized and recovered over time. Distinctions between these two categories—current and suture sales—are sometimes hard to make, hi some cases the Tax Code permits energy producers to claim currently, or on an accelerated basis, expenditures that are related to future production and sales. This lowers income for current tax purposes, thereby increasing the after-tax return to investments in the energy sector compared to other investments. 

A comprehensive analysis of external costs and subsidies must treat each and evei"y stage and phase m the process, which makes any such calculation inherently difficult. Uncertainties abound m these calculations, especially for external costs. As a result, estimates of total external costs and subsidies for different energy sectors vary widely. 

Many publications use an absolute measure that denotes water security, frequently referring to an index that identifies a threshold of 1,700 CM per capita per year of renewable water, based on estimates of water requirements in the household, agricultural, industrial, and energy sectors as well as the needs of the enviromnent. Countries whose renewable water supplies cannot sustain this figure experience water stress. When supply falls below 1,000 m per capita per year, a country is said to experience water scarcity, and below 500 m per capita per year, absolute scarcity. However, these terms are easy to misinterpret, because they do not take into account possibilities for trade in agricultural products, efficiency of water use in agriculture, and other variables, and thus obscure the primacy of economic demand rather than physical need in determining water use [3-5]. 

Hydrogen is emerging as a potential future energy medium with applications to all energy sectors. It is used to feed fuel cells. The major question is the source of the hydrogen and the energy required to produce... 

As is the case in many industrial economies, we are facing an especially dynamic period in the energy sector, particularly the electricity sector, as the forces of supply and demand, deregulation, and environmental protection come together. 

Given the direct link between energy and economic activity, the energy sector has suffered accordingly. A range of capital intensive infrastructure projects are falling victim to the international shortfall of ready capital as projects for power generation, pipeline construction, and liquefied natural gas, for example, have been scaled back or put on hold. 

In the energy sector, coal-fired power plants contribute 54% of C02 emissions, and gas-fired power plants contribute 40%. In 2009, C02 emission from fossil fuels is estimated to increase by 113% compared to the year 2000. Each kWh of electricity of Vietnam contributes 0.52 kg C02 emission. The contribution of each sector to the total emissions in Vietnam through the years is shown in Fig. 9. 

The inventory results in 2010 showed that agriculture in Vietnam is the largest source of emissions with 65 million tons of C02 equivalent (43.1%), followed by energy sector (35%) (Fig. 10) [5],... 

Energy production and consumption pose nature into pressure and make the energy sector becomes the largest contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission in Vietnam since 2010, accounting for 67%. Several emission sources of GHG could be found in a waste treatment facilities it came from (1) emission of methane (CH4, GWP 25) at landfill of mixed waste, (2) from emission of fossil carbon dioxide through the combustion of plastics and composites or supported fuels (auxiliary), and (3) from emission of nitrous oxide (NOx) during incineration/ pretreatment process, etc. 

Research and technology development in Shell Oil, one of the major companies of the energy sector, is organized in a decentralized organization. The best known is Shell Global Solutions, which besides R D, also takes over consultancy and technology... 

There are two major concerns about the future of the energy sector security of energy supply and climate change (due to greenhouse-gas emissions, mainly CO2).1 Figure 2.1 demonstrates why. Global primary energy use per capita has increased... 

The availability of biomass and the allocation of biomass resources across energy sectors are crucial, as this energy source is faced with high expectations with regard to its future potentials. Although the potential analysis undertaken here is focused on the electricity sector, with regard to biomass, all energy sectors have been considered. The total domestic availability of solid biomass is approximately 221 Mtoe/yr (9.2 PJ/yr).3 To indicate the European perspective in a broader context, it is assumed that biomass can be imported to the European market. Specifically ... 

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) (2006). Strategic Technology Roadmap (Energy Sector) - Energy Technology Vision 2100. Tokyo, www.iae.or. jp/2100.html. 

Zittel, W. and Wurster, R. (1996). Hydrogen in the Energy Sector. Issue 8.7.1996. www.hyweb.de/index-e.html. 

Global model for energy systems contains LP all components of the energy sector Spatial and temporal infrastructure LP, mixed... 

Hydrogen corridors are not suitable for the start-up phase of hydrogen use in the energy sector (no small-scale solutions)... 

For such kinds of analysis, four different methodological approaches are normally used for analysis in the energy sector input-output, general equilibrium, system dynamics and econometric models. 

---