Analysis and Testing

Various tests and analytical methods are used for the characterisation and evaluation of the properties of vegetable oil-based polymer composites. Mechanical tests for properties such as tensile, flexural, compressive, impact, hardness and wear are carried out by a universal testing machine (UTM), and by equipment for testing impact, hardness, abrasion loss, and so on. Weather and chemical resistance tests are performed in UV/ozone, an artificial environmental chamber and in different chemical media. Water uptake and biodegradability tests are carried out by standard ASTM methods. Biodegradability and biocompatibility may be studied by the same procedure as described in Chapter 2. However, in practice only a few such studies have been performed for vegetable oil-based composites. 

Spectroscopic analyses such as FTIR, SEM and AFM and thermal analyses are also used to study secondary and primary interactions between matrix and reinforcing agent, surface morphology and thermal behaviour. 

The chemical composition of carbon blacks (see Section 4.2), as determined by common elemental analysis methods, is of little significance for predicting their properties. Special characteristic properties are, therefore, determined for the characterization and quality control of carbon blacks. Traces of heavy metals are determined spectroscopically in the ash. Copper and manganese ions, etc., are of special interest to the rubber industry because of their interference with the aging process of rubber goods. 

Electron Microscopy. Electron microscopy is one of the most important physical methods for the characterization of finely divided solids. It allows direct viewing of the shape and morphology of particles in this order of magnitude, primary particle size, particle size distribution, and aggregation. 

To determine the mean primary particle size and particle size distribution, the diameters of 3000-5000 particles are measured on electron micrographs of known magnification. Spherical shape is anticipated for calculations. However, since the primary particles generally build up larger aggregates, the results may be somewhat uncertain. The specific electron microscopic surface area can be calculated from the primary particle size distribution. This value refers only to the outer (geometrical) surface of the particles. For porous carbon blacks the electron microscopic surface area is lower than the specific surface area according to BET (see below). 

An attempt was made recently to find characteristic values for the type and degree of aggregation using electron micrographs [4.28], However, neither visual comparisons with standard aggregates nor automatic picture analyses have led to a practical method for a quantitative characterization of the carbon black structure on a routine 

High-resolution phase-contrast pictures and X-ray diffraction are used to elucidate the internal structure of single primary particles. 

For a long time, characterization of carbon blacks was a question of determining different shades of black with the human eye. Precise data on the reinforcing effect were available only to a limited degree. 

The method is based on the premise that all interstices, known as void volumes, in the carbon black aggregates are filled with DBP. The surface of the carbon black is considered to be wetted and this new surface state is translated into a change in the torque required for the kneading machine. The DBP requirement thus allows conclusions on the degree of aggregation of individual carbon blacks. The rule the greater the DBP absorption, measured in ml g , the higher the carbon black structure. 

Scanning tunneling microscopy leads to the supposition that the primary particles consist of superimposed, scale-like layers of graphite. For this reason, the L-values determined by X-ray diffraction have to be regarded as a median overlap surface of graphite layers and not as the average size of individual crystallites. 

The chemical analysis of carbon blacks detects in many cases minute quantities of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur besides the carbon. Carbon blacks also contain traces of metals, the amounts and type being feedstock dependent The type and the content of metals in pigment blacks can be summarized as follows  

Most of these elements are concentrated on the surface of the carbon black. Removal of traces of organic elements is possible with the use of special solvents. The carbon black extraction based on toluene, the toluene extract, results in values of mostly less than 0.1%. Further analysis of the material shows, among other substances, minute quantities of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), which are tightly bound to the carbon black surface. 

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For each type of problem, appropriate taste tests are suggested together with the type of panel, number of samples per test, and analysis of data. 

The characteristics of interior paints that require testing and analysis include hiding and appearance, package stabiHty, adhesion, spatter resistance, flow and leveling, color and sheen uniformity, touch-up, stain removal, burnish resistance, and block and print resistance. A popular test that assesses the wet abrasion resistance of an interior paint is to measure its scmb resistance. A mechanical device is used to scmb a paint film of a specified thickness with a standard bmsh and abrasive cleanser suspension. The number of scmb cycles (back and forth movements of the weighted bmsh) at various end points (first cut through, or 50% removal of the film) is then recorded. Scmb resistance usually holds steady or decreases slightly as PVC is increased, but drops quickly once the CPVC is exceeded in a paint formulation. 

Existing facihties present daily bulk soflds flow problems soflds flow testing and analysis saves many hours of expensive downtime and thousands of dollars, thus moving from the complication of quick-fix solutions that are not satisfactory, to proven engineering solutions that work every time. 

Broeklehurst [37] has written an exhaustive review of the early work (prior to 1977) on fracture in polyerystalline graphite. Mueh of this work foeused on the fraeture behavior of nuclear graphites. In most investigations eonsidered, conventional fracture meehanies tests and analysis were performed for maeroseopie craeks. LEFM provided an adequate eriterion for failure. Additionally, results on work of fraeture, strain energy release rate, and fatigue eraek propagation were reported. 

Deals with new vehicle tecluiology, programs to regulate fuels, diesel fuel testing and analysis, and research on fuels and vehicle controls... 

When testing and analysis are completed, the data can be analyzed and summarized. Statistical methods are often used during this step In a study. Data should first be edited and validated. Quality assurance Information from both the sampling and laboratory analyses should be considered In this validation. Field sampling personnel and laboratory scientists should maintain responsibility for data validation. 

Chase GW and Long AR (1997) Nutritional Metrology, PART 4, The Role of a Zero Control Reference Material. Food Testing and Analysis, Jun/Jul 1997, 3 30-33. 

Fox A (2000) AOAC International Offers Leadership in Proficiency Testing. Food Testing and Analysis, 5(6) 7-g. 

Weibull, W. "Fatigue Testing and Analysis of Results " Pergammon Press New York, New York, 1961. 

M. Regert, S. Colinart, L. Degrand, O. Decavallas, Chemical alteration and use of beeswax through time accelerated ageing tests and analysis of archaeological samples from various environmental contexts, Archaeometry, 43, 549 569 (2001). 

HarsNet maintains that reactive chemical testing and analysis is too complex for most small-and medium-sized companies because of the wide spectrum of processes and equipment involved. The project seeks to provide an industry guide for estimating the thermal hazard of a chemical synthesis without sophisticated testing and analysis. 

Hewitt, A. D., 1999, Measurement for Trichloroethylene Relationship between Soil Vapor and Soil Matrix Environmental Testing and Analysis, May/June, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 25-31. 

Davis, J.M., Giddings, J.C. (1985) Statistical method for estimation of number of components from single complex chromatograms theory, computer-based testing, and analysis of errors. Anaf Chem. 57 2168-2177. 

Figure 56. C. G. Storm. Author of numerous articles and government publications on the properties, testing, and analysis of smokeless powder and high explosives. Explosives Chemist at Navy Powder Works, 1901-1909, at U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1909-1915 Directing Chemist, Aetna Explosives Company, 1915-1917 Major and Lieutenant-Colonel, Ordnance Department, 1917-1919 Research Chemist, Trojan Powder Company, 1919 Chief Explosives Chemical Engineer, Office of the Chief of Ordnance, War Department, 1919-1942 since early in 1942, Technical Director, National Fireworks, Inc.

Storm, Christian George (1877—1947). Noted US authority in the field of expls. Author of numerous articles and govt publications on the properties, testing and analysis of smokeless... 

Finding 2-3. HT mustard-filled munitions were not processed at JACADS. HT and HD consist of similar chemicals and will most probably result in much the same products of combustion Nevertheless, there is no evidence that testing and analysis of HT combustion have taken place. 

Chapman, P.M., Wang, F., Germano, J.D. and Batley, G. (2002) Pore water testing and analysis the good, the bad, and the ugly, Marine Pollution Bulletin 44, 3 59-366. 

In a series of standard deviations, variances, or ranges the COCHRAN test [ISO 5725] is used for evaluating the largest value. It is primarily used in (planned) method comparisons, cooperative tests, and analysis of variance where the number of the measurements and the levels of the means should be the same. 

ISO 1213-2 Solid Mineral Fuels - Vocabulary - Part 2 Terms Relating to Sampling, Testing and Analysis, 1992... 

A.D. Hewitt, Frozen Storage of Soil Samples for VOC Analysis, Environmental Testing and Analysis, Volume 8, Number 5, September/October 1999b. 

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