Storm surges

Shallow-water embayments provide a mechanism to isolate seawater so that evaporation can raise salt ion concentrations. Arid climates are required to ensure that the rate of water loss from evaporation exceeds the rate of water supply by rainfell, groundwater seeps, or river runoff. Seawater can be resupplied continuously via a type of antiestuar-ine circulation as illustrated in Figure 17.2 or episodically as a result of sea level change, plate tectonics, or very high tides and storm surges. 

Supratidal That part of the shoreline that lies above the highest reach of the high tides. This zone receives seawater only as a result of storm surges and wind transport. 

Volume 3. J.S.M. van Thiel de Vries, Dune Erosion During Storm Surges Volume 2. P.M.S Monteiro M. Marchand (Eds.), Catchment2Coast, a Systems Approach to Coupled River-Coastal Ecosystem Science and Management Volume 1. F.J. Los, Eco-Hydrodynamie Modelling of Primary Production in Coastal Waters and Lakes Using BLOOM... 

H, = Design annual storm surge, ft (S G. ) - Specific gravity of oil... 

There has been increased coastal erosion in the Bering Sea from storm surges resulting from reduced sea ice. ... 

The boundaries of a river mouth area are defined by the intense manifestation of mouth processes (Fig. 1). The river boundary of a mouth area or the head of a mouth area are defined either by a maximum propagation distance of water level fluctuations of marine origin (tides, storm surges) into a river during low-flow period or by the point, where the river channel is divided into delta branches (a delta head or a delta apex), if water level fluctuations of marine origin do not reach this point. In the first case, there is a part of the river mouth reach above the delta head (or a near-delta reach) between the river boundary of the mouth area and the delta head. In the second case, these two components coincide. The first principle of defining the upper boundary of a river mouth area is usually applicable to river mouths with small deltas or... 

River water runoff is responsible for many hydrological features of river mouths and their parts - deltas, semi-enclosed coastal water bodies and open nearshore zone. Water runoff influences water levels in deltas, delta inundation, water salinity at the mouths, etc. Water runoff depresses action of the storm surges on the deltas. River sediments load determines channel processes, sedimentation in a delta and nearshore, delta formation processes, the rate of delta progradation into the sea. 

The upper boundaries of the mouth reaches of the rivers are determined by propagation of the water level variations induced by storm surges during low-flow periods. The lengths of these reaches for considered rivers equal 160,100 and 20 km respectively. For the Dnieper River, the Kakhovskaya dam limits a distance of storm surge propagation. 

Sometimes the Kuban delta is subject to flooding due to storm surges and ice dams. Significant inundation induced by storm surge was recorded in October 1969, when water level rise at the town of Temryuk at a distance of 7 km from the sea exceeded 3 m [5]. The last large inundation due to ice dam was observed in winter 2003. 

Abstract Based on long-term and seasonal data, the basic hydrometeorological features that form the natural regime of the Black Sea are under consideration, which include climate (regional atmospheric circulation, winds, atmospheric pressure, air temperature, moisture content, precipitation), wind waves, water balance, sea level (multiannual and seasonal changes, storm surges, seishes, tidal oscillations), as well as sea ice. 

Storm surges. These significant nonperiodical sea level oscillations are caused by coastal winds. In so doing, their range and duration depend on numerous factors such as the time of forcing, the wind direction and speed, the outlines of the coastline, the shelf depth, and the water stratification. The most complete characteristics of the storm surges in the Black Sea are presented in [1,11]. 

It was shown that the most significant storm surges are noted off the western and northwestern coasts of the sea over small sea depths near the shore. Here, the storm surges are formed during the cold period of the year. In... 

The duration of the storm surge events varies over a wide range (2-57 h) and depends on the duration of the wind forcing and on the stability of the wind direction in the shallow-water northwestern parts of the sea it is lower than in the deeper areas off the Crimean and Caucasian coasts. 

Table 2 Maximal values (cm) of storm surges with respect to the mean monthly level position in 1880-1985 [12]...

Fomicheva LA (1975) Storm surges, daily level oscillations, and seishes in the Black Sea. Trudy Gos Okeanogr Inst p 125 (in Russian)... 

Setbacks are designed to keep structures out of extreme hazardous zones (coastal erosion, flooding, storm surges). A stringline setback simply requires that new construction be a fixed distance inland from a reference line (e.g., back of the beach, vegetation line, the crest of the sand dune). 

Natural disasters can be categorized as acute or slow in their onset (Noji, 1996). They are predictable because they cluster in geographic areas. Natural hazards are unpreventable and, for the most part, uncontrollable. Even if quick recovery occurs, natural disasters can have long-term effects. Natural disasters with acute onsets include events such as avalanche blizzard or extreme cold earthquake fire flood heat wave hurricane, cyclone, or typhoon tornado tsunami or storm surge volcanic eruption and wildfire. Natural hazards with a slow or gradual onset include deforestation, desertification, drought, and pest infestation. The most important natural disasters and examples of their environmental effects are listed in Table 17.1. 

The severity of a storm s impact on humans is exacerbated by deforestation, which often occurs as a result of population pressure. When trees disappear along coastlines, winds and storm surges can enter land with greater force. Deforestation on the slopes of hills and mountains increases the risk of violent flash floods and landslides caused by the heavy rain associated with tropical cyclones. At the same time, the beneficial effects of the rainfall—replenishment of the water resources— may be negated because of the inability of a deforested ecosystem to absorb and retain water. 

Murakami, T. Yoshino, J. Yasuda, T. Iizuka, S. Shimokawa, S. (2011). Atmosphere-Ocean-Wave Coupled Model Performing 4DDA with a Tropical Cyclone Bogussing Scheme to Calculate Storm Surges in an Inner Bay. Asian Journal of Environment and Disaster Management, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 217-228. 

Shimokawa, S. Murakami, T. Iizuka, S. Yoshino, J. Yasuda, T. (2014a). A New Typhoon Bogussing Scheme to Obtain the Possible Maximum Typhoon and its Application for Assessment of Impacts of the Possible Maximum Storm Surges in Ise and Tokyo Bays in Japan, Natural Hazards, Vol. 74, pp. 2037-2052, doi 10.1007/ S11069-014-1277-2. 

The periods of the first few modes of the seiches are quite close to the characteristic timescales of the wind forcing of the Baltic Sea. The spatial scales of the atmospheric low-pressure systems are comparable with the length scale of the Baltic Sea. Therefore, the first mode will be excited most likely. If strong pressure systems pass the Baltic Sea such that during half of the period of the first mode the wind blows from the southwest to the northeast and during the following half period in the opposite direction then the sea level elevations of the Baltic Sea are forced resonantly and a storm surge may occur. 

The second strongest storm surge at the German Baltic Sea coast occurred in 1913 with 189 cm (Fig. 4.10) - followed by the storm surge of 1904 with 188 cm mean surge level. 

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