Spent Rechargeable Batteries

Sorting Ni-Cd batteries from collected streams is a critical operation for those composition where zinc batteries are dominating. Industrial sorting technologies are in operation in Europe (Euro Bat Tri - 2000 and Wiaux -2000) but not in all eountries and not with the same efficieney. It is believed that a significant fraction of Ni-Cd batteries collected are still processed with zinc batteries and are not accounted separately. 

In the future, the practise of separation of municipal waste before incineration will be more popular. Then, Ni-Cd batteries could be easily removed from municipal waste streams by using an electro-magnet overband in order to remove all Ni-Cd batteries together with other ferro-magnetic materials. This technology is currently used in the Netherlands (CollectNiCad 2001). 

The major collection programs in operation in Europe are presented in Table 4. 

Country Organization Status Year Primary batteries Secondary batteries Remarks 

Germany ARGE-BAT VA(1) 88 X X X X X All battery collection since april 1998 

---

This paper reviews methods to recycle cobalt from the scraps of various alloys, from spent rechargeable batteries or spent catalysts and from metallurgical residues, presenting both actual and suggested processes. 

Recycling and refining of spent rechargeable batteries (NiMH and Li-ion)... 

Zhang, P. W. Yokoyama, T. Itabashi, O. Wakui, Y. Suzuki, T. M. Inoue, K. Recovery of metal values from spent nickel-metal hydride rechargeable batteries. J. Power Sources 1999, 77, 116-122. 

Nickel and cadmium are used in the production of NiFe rechargeable batteries. Using the AmMAR concept, the main leaching procedure to dissolve these valuable metals from spent accumulator scrap and production waste is performed in a two-step procedure, first with an ammonium carbonate solution and second with diluted sulfuric acid to obtain very high leaching efficiency (Fig. 14.18). 

Total life cycle analyses may be utilized to establish the relative environmental and human health impacts of battery systems over their entire lifetime, from the production of the raw materials to the ultimate disposal of the spent battery. The three most important factors determining the total life cycle impact appear to be battery composition, battery performance, and the degree to which spent batteries are recycled after their useful lifetime. This assessment examines both rechargeable and non-rechargeable batteries, and includes lead acid, nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, carbon zinc and alkaline manganese batteries. 

If portable rechargeable batteries that have been sold with EEE for the last ten to fifteen years are not introduced in MSW streams, their presence in other streams needs to be identified and evaluated quantitatively. The work carried out by two national collection programs for spent batteries and by CollectNiCad is presented in this chapter. (CollectNiCad is an industry initiated and financed program with a commitment to collect 5,000 tonnes of Ni-Cd batteries in 4 years [1999-2003]). It demonstrates the willingness of the portable rechargeable battery industry to clearly identify the presence of its products in the various market positions and waste streams (Figure 1). A consumer survey made on the hoarding effect in France and the evaluation of quantities of batteries in MSW in France and the Netherlands will be illustrated. 

For portable rechargeable batteries that are incorporated in pieces of equipment, the consumer is not willing to separate the rechargeable battery from the equipment. If this equipment has a potential life of more than ten years on the market, the amount of spent batteries collected will be very low. 

For small-size portable rechargeable batteries, the collection of spent nickel cadmium batteries started in 1985 and has been pursued in combination with the collection of nickel metalhydride batteries, lithium ion batteries and small-size sealed lead-acid batteries. The collection rate of nickel cadmium batteries was over 40% in 2000. 

Battery technology, specifically rechargeable battery technology, is vital to portable electronic equipment and is driven by the billions of dollars spent by the laptop computer and cellular phone industries. The field of prosthetics and orthotics (P O) sits on the sidelines and picks up anything that looks like it could be of use. In an electrically powered prosthesis, the main current draw comes from the dc motor(s) used to actuate the device. In a dc motor, the output torque is directly proportional to the amount of current drawn. Motor use in prostheses is not continuous but is intermittent. Consequently, it is important not only to know how much energy a battery can provide but also how fast the battery can provide it. 

Do-Su Kim, Jeong-Soo Sohn, Churl-Kyoung Lee, et al. Simultaneous separation and renovation of lithium cobalt oxide from the cathode of spent lithium ion rechargeable batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 132(1-2) 145-149, 2004. 

Electrically rechargeable batteries, like other conventional secondary batteries, can be recharged by electricity. Mechanically rechargeable batteries require the mechanical replacement of spent anode with fresh electrode. 

Zinc-air modules for EV application are under development at the Edison company in Italy and by the Electric Fuel Ltd in Israel. In this case, the battery recharge also includes a mechanical step, namely the removal and replacement of the spent zinc electrodes. The actual electrochemical recharging process is carried out in a remote station. The proposed application to passenger vehicles considers the construction of specific stations where the removal and replacement of the spent zinc electrode pack is carried out automatically (Fig. 9.19). Energy and power densities of the order of 200 Wh/kg and 100 W/kg, respectively, and long cyclability, which may provide the car with a 300 km range and a... 

Minnesota law requires manufacturers of rechargeable Ni-Cd batteries or products containing those batteries to take responsibility for the costs of collecting and managing waste batteries to ensure that they do not enter the waste stream. Consumers are responsible for returning spent batteries to the collection points, which include retail... 

Gulf General Atomic Company was one of the first parties to develop a zinc/air and zinc/oxygen system for an electric vehicle. A 20 kW zinc/oxygen battery was tested in a mini-moke jeep. The system employed electrolyte circulation and continuous removal of Zn(OH)2 reaction product. Zinc electrodes were regenerated from spent alkaline zincate solution in external recharging cells [16]. 

In a battery, the electrons moving around the external circuit are used to do useful work. The driving force for this is the energy of the cell reaction. Batteries are spent, or need recharging, when one or both of the components has been used up. 

Fabio H. B. Lima was bom in Brazil in 1978. He graduated in Chemistry at University of Sao Paulo, Sao Carlos, in 2001. He obtained his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in the same institution, in 2006, with a stage at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. He spent 12 months as a postdoctoral fellow at the Chemistry Institute of Sao Carlos (IQSC) between 2006 and 2008. He is currently interested in synthesis and electrocatalysis for reactions involved in electrochemical energy conversion devices such as regenerative fuel cells (H2/O2 and HCOOH/CO2), rechargeable metal-air batteries, direct hydrazine, borohydride and ethanol fuel cells. Publication of scientific research includes 36 articles in journals, 3 chapters in books and more than 50 scientific summaries in collective books and proceedings. 

It Is Intriguing that In a sophisticated technology area such as electrochemistry, where billions of recent dollars have been spent In the search for newer batteries, the commercial rechargeable... 

---