Primary and secondary batteries

Shelf life — A period of time in which a -> battery can be stored under specified conditions before it fails to deliver minimum specified performance of energy and - power. The shelf fife of batteries, primary and secondary, is dependent on the type of battery, the storage temperature and humidity, and on the state of charge. The main sources that limit batteries shelf fife is self - discharging, - corrosion, and dehydration. 

Currently, Yardney is in continuous production of secondary lithium-ion batteries, primary and secondary silver-zinc batteries and primary reserve silver-zinc batteries used on various Department of Defense applications. The primary battery applications include the Navy s Trident IID5 Fleet Ballistic Missile program, the Minuteman III ICBM, and primary power for the MK 21 re-entry vehicle. In 2012, the Trident II missile has achieved 143 successful test launches since 1989—a record unmatched by any other large ballistic missile or space launch vehicle. The most prominent Li-ion batteries made by Yardney have powered the Mars Explorer Rover missions (Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity), the USAF B-2 Bomber and Global Hawk aircraft, and the US Navy Advanced SEAL Delivery System (ASDS). One of the future applications for Yardney s Li-ion batteries is NASA s Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV). 

When a battery produces current, the sites of current production are not uniformly distributed on the electrodes (45). The nonuniform current distribution lowers the expected performance from a battery system, and causes excessive heat evolution and low utilization of active materials. Two types of current distribution, primary and secondary, can be distinguished. The primary distribution is related to the current production based on the geometric surface area of the battery constmction. Secondary current distribution is related to current production sites inside the porous electrode itself. Most practical battery constmctions have nonuniform current distribution across the surface of the electrodes. This primary current distribution is governed by geometric factors such as height (or length) of the electrodes, the distance between the electrodes, the resistance of the anode and cathode stmctures by the resistance of the electrolyte and by the polarization resistance or hinderance of the electrode reaction processes. 

Batteries, both primary and secondary, have become very big business indeed, which moreover is growing rapidly. Salkind (1998) in a concise overview of the entire domain of battery types and technologies, estimates that in 1996, the world market in the two types of battery combined totalled ss 33 billion dollars, and that the ratio of secondary to primary battery sales is steadily edging upwards. In spite of its poor charge density per unit mass, the lead-acid battery still accounts for more than a quarter of the total, because it costs so much less than its rivals and lasts well. 

Table 3. Comparison of primary and secondary battery systems...

Table 2. Primary and secondary battery market forecast Ibillion batteries]...

The design of a AA-size alkaline manganese dioxide cell is shown in Fig. 1 (Sec. 3.1). Primary and secondary alkaline batteries are constructed in the same way and can be manufactured on essentially the same machinery. The separator material, electrode formulation, and the Mn02 Zn balance are different. Rechargeable cells are zinc-limited to prevent a discharge beyond the first electron-equivalent of the MnOz reduction. The electrolyte is 7-9 mol L KOH. The electrode reactions are ... 

Although many different abbreviations for primary and secondary (or storage) batteries are used, the correct form of displaying a battery system is the following ... 

J. A. Stiles, D. T. Fouchard, Proc. Symp. Primary and Secondary Ambient Temperature Lithium Batteries, The Electrochemical Society, 1988, Vol. PV-88, p. 422. 

E. Peled, D. Golodnitsky, G, Ardel, J. Lang, Y. Lavi, Proc. 11th Int. Sem. on Primary and Secondary Battery Technology and Applications, Eds. S.P. Wolsky, N. Marincic, Florida, 1994. 

D. Aurbach, Y. Gofer, E. Goren in Primary and Secondary Lithium Batteries (Eds. K. M. Abraham, M. Salomon), The Electrochemical Society Proceeding Series, PV 91-3, The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ,... 

R. W. Callahan, K. V. Nguyen, J. G. McLean, J. Propst, D. K. Hoffman, 10th International Seminar on Primary and Secondary Battery Technology and Application, March 1-4, 1993. 

M. Geiger, R. Callahan, C. Dwiggins, H. Fisher, D. Hoffman, W. Yu, K. Abraham, M. Jillson, T. Nguyen, 11th International Seminar on Primary and Secondary Battery Technoi-... 

The organization of the Handbook of Battery Materials is simple, dividing between aqueous electrolyte batteries and alkali metal batteries and further in anodes, cathodes, electrolytes and separators. There are also three more general chapters about thermodynamics and mechanistics of electrode reactions, practical batteries and the global competition of primary and secondary batteries. 

Modem electrochemistry has vast applications. Electrochemical processes form the basis of large-scale chemical and metaUnrgical production of a number of materials. Electrochemical phenomena are responsible for metallic corrosion, which causes untold losses in the economy. Modem electrochemical power sources (primary and secondary batteries) are used in many helds of engineering, and their production figures are measured in billions of units. Other electrochemical processes and devices are also used widely. 

D—Leclanche Zinc anode Carbon, silver chloride, and air Primary and secondary Zinc—air batteries, carbon—zinc batteries, and silver chloride-zinc batteries... 

Other types Variable Variable Primary and secondary Nickel-metal hydride cells, sodium-sulfur batteries,... 

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