Tonic seizure

Partial seizures Tonic-clonic Complex partial Absence Generalized seizures ... 

N.A. Scutellaria lateriflora L. Scutellarin, baicalin, baicalein, wogonin, benzoic acid, catalpol, tannins, beta-sitosterol, camphesterol, stigmasterol.99-102-163 Sedative and antispasmodic, prevent epileptic seizures, tonic, antispasmodic, antiallergic. 

Absence seizures Febrile seizures in children Status epilepticus Absence seizures Tonic-clonic seizures... 

Agent Seizures Tonic-Clonic Absence Myoclonic... 

Some early signs of infection that need to be reported immediately to health care providers include fever, sore throat, fatigue, and mucous membrane ulcerations. The most common side effects of Clozaril are seizures, tonic and clonic convulsions, drowsiness, sedation, dizziness, and postural hypotension. Clozaril should never be used with drugs that can suppress bone marrow such as anticancer drugs PDR, 2000). 

Status epilepticus, cortical focal seizures, tonic-clonic seizures... 

Absence seizures Myoclonic seizures Clonic seizures Tonic seizures Tonic clonic seizures Atonic seizures... 

Primidone [125-33-7] C22H24N2O2 (39) is an analogue of phenobarbital that is used for the treatment of generalized tonic-clonic seizures. It is metabolized in humans to phenobarbital (6) and phenylethyLmalondiamide [7206-76-0J, C22H24N2O2 (40) and these metaboUtes are probably responsible for its anticonvulsant actions. Primidone has many of the side effect HabiUties seen with phenobarbital. 

Primary generalized seizures are also heterogeneous with respect to their clinical features. Such seizures can impose as absence epilepsy, which is characterized by a brief interruption of consciousness due to highly synchronized neuronal activity involving thalamocortical networks without increases in neuronal firing rate. On the other hand, tonic-clonic convulsions with loss of consciousness are often also primarily generalized. 

One of the oldest antiepileptic drugs, bromide, has been repotted to boost inhibition by an unknown mechanism. Bromide is still in use in certain cases of tonic-clonic seizures and in pediatric patients with recurrent febrile convulsions and others. The mechanism of action may include a potentiation of GABAergic synaptic transmission, although the precise target is not known. 

Benign familial neonatal convulsion is an idiopathic form of epilepsy beginning within the first six months after birth. Seizures include generalized and mixed, starting with tonic posture, ocular symptoms, and apnea, and often progress to clonic movements and motor automatisms. 

Tonic-clonic convulsions are abnormal motor behavior during a seizure characterized by slow movements with high muscle tension (tonic phase) and subsequent repetitive oscillating movements of limbs (clonic phase). 

Generalized seizures include absence, myoclonic, and tonic-clonic. Manifestations of a generalized tonic-clonic seizure include alternate contraction (tonic phase) and relaxation (clonic phase) of muscles, a loss of consciousness, and abnormal behavior. Myoclonic seizures involve sudden, forceful contractions involving the musculature of the trunk, neck, and extremities. Absence seizures, previously referred to as petit mal seizures, are seizures characterized by a brief loss of consciousness during which physical activity ceases. The seizures typically last a few seconds, occur many times a day, and may go unnoticed by others. 

Administration of trimethadione (Tridione) may result in hematologic changes, such as pancytopenia (decrease in all the cellular components of the blood), leukopenia, aplastic anemia, and thrombocytopenia Also reported are various types of skin rashes, diplopia (double vision), vomiting, changes in blood pressure, CNS depression, photosensitivity, and fatal nephrosis. Because these dm have been associated with serious adverse reactions and fetal malformations, they should be used only when other less toxic dm are not effective in controlling seizures. The oxazolidinediones may precipitate a tonic-clonic seizure... 

Similarly, convulsive seizures and a sustained epileptic state persisted after stomach contents were pumped and activated charcoal and anticonvulsive medication were administered in a 43-year-old man who ingested approximately 260 mg/kg endosulfan (Boereboom et al. 1998). At 4 days after exposure, the man was pronounced brain dead, and autopsy revealed cerebral hernia from massive cerebral edema. Eight additional accidental and/or intentional cases of acute poisoning with endosulfan resulting in adverse neurological effects have been reported in more recent studies, six by Blanco-Coronado et al. (1992), one by Lo et al. (1995), and one by Pradhan et al. (1997) two out of the eight resulted in death. Tonic-clonic convulsions were seen in the Blanco-Coronado et al. (1992) cases, whereas Lo et al. (1995) reported the development of muscle fasciculations and episodes of convulsions in their case. In the case reported by Pradhan et al. (1997), the patient had consumed about 75 mL of hquid endosulfan (35% w/v). In this case, in addition to tonic-clonic seizures and myoclonic jerks, the patient developed... 

Various animals show spontaneous epilepsy or seizures that can be readily induced by sensory stimulation (see Jobe et al. 1991). Tottering mice display seizures that resemble absence attacks behaviourally, in their EEG pattern and response to drugs. DBA/2 mice show reflex seizures to audiogenic stimuli while photically-induced seizures can be obtained in the Senegalese baboon, Papiopapio, which are similar to generalised tonic-clonic epilepsy. 

It has become clear that drugs which are effective in protecting mice against PTZ are effective in absence seizures while those able to control the tonic response to maximal electroshock are effective in tonic-clonic seizure. Some drugs are effective in only one test and clinical condition whilst a few are active in both (Table 16.1). Experimental focal seizures are indicative of partial seizures. 

Phenobarbitone was the first AED and was introduced in 1912. It was largely replaced in 1932 by phenytoin for the management of tonic-xilonic seizures and partial and secondary epilepsy. Carbamazepine followed, then ethosuximide for absence seizures and valproic acid. These remained, apart from the introduction of the benzodiazepines, the mainstay of therapy until the last decade. They were introduced solely on their ability to control experimentally induced seizures. Their mechanisms of action were unknown and no thought was given to the possibility of NT modification and in fact subsequent research has shown that with the exception of the benzodiazepines none of them work primarily through NT manipulation. They act directly on neuronal excitability. 

Phenobarbitone may be as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in partial and generalised tonic-clonic seizures but its other central effects such as sedation, depression, listlessness and cognitive impairment mar its usefulness. 

Clonazepam, a typical 1 4 benzodiazepine, is effective in absence seizures, myoclonic jerks and tonic-clonic seizures and given intravenously it attenuates status epilepticus. It is less sedative than phenobarbitone but tolerance develops and its withdrawal, as... 

Introduced initially for absence seizures, this drug is now known to be effective in and used to treat tonic lonic seizures and most types of epilepsy. It was found to inhibit GABA transaminase and so elevate GABA concentrations and inhibition. This is achieved, however, over a slower time-course than its anti-seizure effect, especially experimentally, which is now thought to be due to its phenytoin-like, use-dependent block of sodium channels. Since, unlike phenytoin, the full effect of valproate takes some weeks to develop, its slower effect on GABA metabolism and activity should not be ignored. 

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